Nkhani linalake. List of madera mabuku. Maps, atlases

Kuyambira kalekale, munthu ankafuna kudziwa ndi m'chizimezime - dera atsopano kapena kumalekezero a dziko lapansi. Zaka zapita, chitukuko anasonkhanitsa chidziwitso. nthawi yafika nthawi asayansi, amene sanakhalepo akutali, anadziwa zambiri za iwo. Pochita zimenezi, iwo anathandizidwa ndi nkhani linalake.

Nkhaniyi adzakuuzani kuti, komanso mitundu awo.

Zikhulupiriro General

Mukhoza ndikuganiza, kotero ine ndinamuimbira onse nkhani amene munthu akhoza kulandira mauthenga chidwi kwa iye. Amene amasanthula nkhani chirengedwe kalasi 5 (mu sukulu zasekondale)? Tiyeni muzindandalike:

• mapu onse, atlases, ndipo zosiyanasiyana mapulani mtunda, kuphatikizapo usilikali.
• Osiyanasiyana ofotokoza dera limene madera yeniyeni.
• Akalozera, nkhani Buku, ndi malipoti zotsatira za maulendo osiyanasiyana.
• zithunzi zamlengalenga ndi malo zithunzi Kanema.
• GIS ndi GPS / GLONASS.

Pano pali nkhani chirengedwe amadziwa kalasi 5 avareji sukulu mabuku. Timayesetsa kuti tikambirane makhalidwe ena a iwo mwatsatanetsatane pang'ono.

zamakono

M'zaka zaposachedwapa, chuma ambiri inasamutsidwa kuchoka pepala kwa mtundu yadigito. Zimenezi n'zosadabwitsa. Pafupifupi onse 5 malo osiyanasiyana magwero zambiri, zimene ife tatchulawa, lero tingapeze mu mawonekedwe yadigito. Ngakhale asayansi akatswiri M'zaka zaposachedwapa, kugwira ntchito ndi "nambala".

Ndi dongosolo lomwelo GIS ntchito kwambiri yabwino koposa ndi mulu wa mabuku. Ndipo tsopano tikambirane za magwero ena a mudziwe malo osiyanasiyana mwatsatanetsatane.

khadi

Khadi wotchedwa zowombetsa mkota chojambula chithunzi cha dziko lonse lapansi, dziko lonse kapena zinthu zakuthambo. Inamangidwa pa mfundo za makulitsidwe, mwachitsanzo njira masamu ntchito kwa cholinga ichi. Ndiko kuti, malingana ndi sikelo ya makadi onse akhoza lophatikizana ndi ubwamunalo linagawanika mu magulu atatu aakulu:

• Ikulu-ikulu.
• Mesoscale.
• Ang'ono-ang'ono.

Ngati ife kulankhula za gulu loyamba, kenako chiŵerengero mwa zolemba zimenezi kungakhale 1: 200 000 ndipo akuluakulu. Izi zikuphatikizapo pafupifupi onse mapulani mtunda. Small lonse ndi makadi onse, chiŵerengero ndi zosakwana 1: 1 000 000 Buku la mapu wamba kumaphatikizapo kapena ang'ono-ang'ono kapena sing'anga-kakulidwe zofuna zawo yabwino yoti kuphunzira za m'dera makamaka.

mudziwe mtundu cartographic

Muyenera kudziwa kuti kale chilengedwe akatswiri kubala mapu okhwima kusankha njira kuti idzaonetsedwa pa izo. Kumeneku amati motere: cartographic generalization. Mwachibadwa, kusankha kwambiri okhwima alipo mudziko la mapu ang'ono-ang'ono, monga ayenera kuwaganizira pazipita kuchuluka kwa mfundo zothandiza pa zotsalira osachepera chikalatacho. Mu generalization kwambiri udindo wofunika kwambiri ankaimba ndi mwachindunji kusankhidwa khadi komanso zofuna za ogula.

mapulani malo

Chotero anaitana mtunda zojambula, amene anachita mwaunyinji (1: 5000 kapena zambiri), ndipo achotsedwa ntchito zizindikiro zapadera. Pochita zimenezi, iwo amafanana ndi Buku la mapu sukulu. Ntchito yomanga mapulani amenewa zachokera zithunzi, malangizo muyeso, mlengalenga kujambula kapena njira ophatikizana.

Kuyambira pa mapulani mwachindunji malo ochepa padziko lapansi, pamene kulenga kupindika dziko angathe kuwasamalira. Kuyenera anamvetsetsa kuti zinthu zimenezi wa mudziwe enieni zimene ife monga tafotokozeramu, ndi ukasintha osiyana Chrixitu.

Kusiyana zazikulu madongosolo khadi

• Dongosolo centimeter mocheperapo anaika makilomita oposa asanu ndi mtunda enieni. Iwo makadi makamaka millimeter munthu amene angakhoze kuikidwa mazana makilomita a padziko lapansi.
• zinthu zonse pa mapulani nthaka amaoneka ngati zofunikila ngati nkotheka. Mfundo m'madera onse kwambiri kapena zochepa zofunika chizindikiro chimunthu pafupifupi. Choncho, mapulani mtunda wa General Wogwila (ndi Soviet Union kumene) zikhoza anasonyeza ngakhale mitengo ndi mitsinje yaing'ono. Pa mapu n'zosatheka kudziwa zonse. Kwenikweni Choncho, anagwira generalization, zimene tinakambirana pamwamba. Ngakhale maphunziro enieni a m'mayiko pa mapu ambiri akhoza kuwonetsedwa, koma chifukwa nthawi zambiri ntchito ndi kupotoza ndithu. Komanso, pamwamba mabuku ena pa malo a zizindikiro ntchito scaleless.
• Ife kutsindika kamodzinso kuti dongosolo kumanga kwa kusasamala kupindika padziko lapansi. Makadi, makamaka pang'ono pokha, amaona kuvomerezedwa.
• Pa mapulani konse digiri gululi. Pa nthawi yomweyo, kufanana ndi meridians ali pa aliyense wa iwo.
• Ndondomeko nthawi zonse ngakhale mawu lathu. Pamwamba pa chikalata - kumpoto, pansi, motero, - kum'mwera. Pa mapu a dera chimafotokozera kufanana ndi.

Image njira akutsutsa pa mapulani ndi mapu

otchulidwa makonzedwe mu nkhani iyi ndi ochiritsira embodiments imene Mbali yosiyanasiyana asonyezedwa pa mapu kapena kukonza zinthu. Ndi thandizo lawo, mungasonyeze chinachake konkire (a mapiri, mwachitsanzo), ndi chinachake umboni ndithu, makonzedwe (osalimba a anthu mu mzinda, mudzi, ndi zina zotero. N.). Kumene, iwo onse kwambiri atsogolere moyo wa munthu amene amadziwa ndizosowa mapu ndipo amatha kuwerenga chithunzichi.

nthawi yaitali bwanji mapu akhala zogwirizana?

funsoli osachepera einozhdy anapereka pafupifupi onse geographers ndi Akatswiriwa. A mofatsa mayankho zimadalira cholinga, ukulu, mlembi wa dongosolo. Choncho, akatswiri akale amakonda kujambula mapu limatanthauza "pa bondo", choncho kulankhula za molondola Sikuti. Koma General Wogwila mapu, ngakhale nthawi, komabe Timasangalalanso mwandondomeko awo.

Musaiwale kuti mapu a Far North ndi kunena mkulu bata, pamene Amazon ndi zolinga Nile akhoza bwinobwino kuwataya zaka makumi asanu pambuyo buku awo. izi mitsinje monga efficiently ndi mofulumira kusintha zimachititsa chilumbachi wa padziko Lapansi, kuyambira zikalata akulu kuona yekha basi zakhala zikuchitika.

mafotokozedwe Geographical, kutsegula

magwero onse mudziwe malo osiyanasiyana zafotokozedwa pamwambapa, ena yosasangalatsa, uninteresting. Kodi zosangalatsa onani malongosoledwe a dera, dera kapena ngakhale Africa, lolembedwa ndi munthu amene anapeza zonse!

Nthabwala pambali, koma kufotokozera ndi nkhani zachilengedwe (geodetic, kwachilengedwenso) maphunziro zina amathandiza kwambiri zambiri kuposa mwatsatanetsatane topographic m'dera mapu. Makamaka otsiriza si kusonyeza ena mwa mbali zosasangalatsa za m'dera makamaka (malungo, opezeka m'madera ena chapakati Africa, ku khwerero liri Mwachitsanzo).

Mndandanda wa mabuku pa madera, umene inakhazikitsa ophunzira pa sukulu (mwachitsanzo Nikolina vv madera, chitukuko ntchito; Samkova VA tikuphunzira nkhalango, Forest Encyclopedia: 2 T / lomweli tira G. I. Vorobov ... ), monga nthawi ndi kuthokoza anapanga ntchito ofufuza panthawiyo lembani mfundo zonse pa khadi pokhala ali pakatikati pa zinthu.

mudziwe mwachidule za kutsegula kwa Africa

Tiuzeni pang'ono za mbiri ya kutsegula kwa Mdima M'dziko. Kumene, mawu akuti "anapeza" si zoonadi: ndi Australia - inde, kukadamuyenera kumva zowawa. Pankhani ya Africa takhala bwino kuphunzira m'madera a m'mphepete mwa nyanja, kumene akapolo wakuda anakhudzidwa ndi ogulidwa kuchokera Arab amalonda njovu, koma zimene zikuchitika pa mkati mwa kulalikira, sankadziwa pafupifupi aliyense.

Zinthu zinasintha mu XIX atumwi, pamene lodziwika bwino anafika ku Africa, David Livingstone. Kwa iye muli ulemu otseguka gwero la Nile ndi zazikulu Nyanja Victoria. anthu ochepa mukudziwa, koma maphunziro Central Africa panthawiyo chinkhoswe mu Russian wasayansi vv Junker (mu zaka 1876-1886).

Pakuti anthu zakwawoko a mu izo zinatha mwachisoni, magwero waukulu mudziwe malo osiyanasiyana (ie mapu), deta imene ali ovuta ndi ngozi nthawi zonse moyo anasonkhana asayansi awa onse wolimba akhala mwakhama ntchito ndi amalonda ...

Choncho, ndi mapu ndi mapulani, timakha- itatha. atlases Geographical a gulu lomwelo. Ndipo kodi cholinga cha magwero yamakono ya mudziwe malo osiyanasiyana? Kuti tiyankhe funso limeneli, taganizirani mfundo cholalikira akale mapu pepala panyanja, amene tsopano mwakhama ntchito ndi geographers ngakhale akatswiri ndi akatswiri a nthaka.

GPS / GLONASS + mapu

Tikumbukenso kuti njira imeneyi mwangwiro oyenera kudziwa molondola za mapu, atlases ndi mapulani mtunda. Komanso njira imeneyi ayenera udovletovryaet azambiriyakale, monga iwo angakhoze okha mmene wasintha mtunda, amene akambidwa mu mbiri chi zochitika zosiyanasiyana. Komabe, madera mabuku mafilimu komanso mapulani malo amene si azionjezera kuyambira chiyambi cha m'ma lomaliza.

Pofuna kupindula ndi cholondola, koma nthawi yambiri ndi njira penapake wamatama, inu muyenera kuchita anamanga patatu (makadi atatu osiyana) ku malo m'dera lomweli:

• Choyamba, kupeza mapu kwambiri kapena zochepa masiku ano mapu topographic.
• Iwo m'pofunika kunyamula chithunzithunzi watsopano wa phunziro Azamlengalenga mtunda ponena mtunda kwa ntchito dongosolo.
• Pomaliza, tiyenera kuti khadi, ndi mfundo imene mukupita kukayendera.

Tanthauzo la opaleshoni ndi kuwonjezera pokumbukira kuyenda panyanja, onse atatu a m'dera zojambula. zitsanzo za zipangizozi Current ndi purosesa mwachilungamo mphamvu ndi chidwi kuchuluka kwa RAM, kotero inu mukhoza kusinthana pakati makadi adzatero yomweyo.

Khama la njira

njira A bwino Pogwiritsa ntchito masiku ano mapu mtunda kapena dongosolo. Sitikudziwa amalangiza ntchito zolemba izi akale. N'zotheka kuti m'malo mwa chithaphwi tsopano anayendayenda m'deralo, koma m'mphepete mwa nkhalango kamodzi ochepa wamng'ono, sangathe pochitika, chifukwa malo lasintha modabwitsa zintchito. Khadi - ziri zabwino, ndicho chokhacho mu ambiri a milandu, zolemba zimenezi si zolondola kwambiri.

Chifukwa mlengalenga kujambula ndi zithunzi Kanema adalipo khadi?

Koma chifukwa pepala zithunzi kotero wolephera zinthu zamakono? The mfundo zotsatirazi zifukwa ziwiri:

• Choyamba, kufunika kwa zithunzi Kanema kapena mlengalenga chithunzi nthawi zambiri apamwamba. Pamene akatswiri olemba mapu akadali vouchsafed kugwira generalization wina deta latsopano ndi panopa mapulani kumasulidwa kwa m'dera?
• M'zithunzi muli kwenikweni mu nthawi chenicheni kudziwa makhalidwe a m'dera makamaka. Pa mapu, kapena ngakhale dongosolo mtunda wa mitundu mtengo nkhalango idzaonetsedwa yekha schematically ndipo kokha mwa mawu ambiri. Kunena mwachidule, phuntha pakati nkhungu spruce prolesok birch zikuoneka, ndipo mu nkhungu m'nkhalango ya paini ndi kusochera mosavuta kwambiri.

Posankha njira ndi kuona zithunzi latsopano, izo tikulimbikitsidwa kuti uone mapu akale. Chifukwa ndi zovuta? Tiyerekeze kuti ndinu zamoyo pa linanena bungwe kumunda. Muyenera kudziwa mmene nkhalango wamkulu, amene anaonekera mitundu mtengo watsopano, mitundu nkhalango kusinthidwa mu zaka zonsezi. Abwino kuthetsa mavuto onsewa chabe chimamangidwa khadi zatsopano mnzake ake akale. Choncho, chilichonse akhala bwino looneka ngati nkotheka.

Nazi zinthu amagwiritsa madera. Map - mwina zofunika kwambiri a iwo, koma sitiyenera kuiwala kuti pa zapitazi khumi, sayansi ndi umisiri apita patsogolo kwambiri, choncho opusa osati kutengerapo mwayi pa zinthu zofunika zonse mwamakono.

Pomaliza

Kotero inu mukudziwa zimene nkhani malo osiyanasiyana pa nthawi ino, ndi zogwirizana kwambiri. Oddly zokwanira, koma ife ndikadali ntchito zolinga zofanana ndi mapu amene anatulukira pamaso yathu ino. Kumene, kusintha kwa tione yawo yamakono.