Pakachitsulo (mankhwala mchitidwe) katundu khalidwe chilinganizo. Pakachitsulo kutsegula nkhani

Ambiri masiku ano zipangizo zamakono ndi apparatuses zinalengedwa chifukwa wapadera katundu zinthu za m'chilengedwe. Anthu ndi kuyesera ndi kuphunzira mosamalitsa zinthu zimene zatizungulira zonse kukweza chidali chifuniro chake - ndondomeko iyi akutchedwa patsogolo sayansi. Bukuli lili ndi losavuta, yopezeka kwa aliyense zinthu zimene zatizungulira tsiku ndi tsiku. Mwachitsanzo, mchenga, zimene zingakhale zodabwitsa ndi zachilendo? Asayansi anatha kupeza izo kwa pakachitsulo - chinthu mankhwala, popanda zomwe sipakanakhala zida kompyuta. munda wake wa ntchito ndi osiyanasiyana ndipo nthawi zonse kuwonjezera. Izi zimatheka ndi wapadera katundu wa pakachitsulo atomu, matabwa ake ndi kuthekera kwa mankhwala yosavuta ndi zinthu zina.

mbali

Mu dongosolo nthawi, anayamba D. I. Mendeleevym, pakachitsulo (mankhwala mchitidwe) akusonyeza chizindikiro Si. Zimatanthauza sanali zitsulo-, lili waukulu gulu chachinayi cha nthawi yachitatu, ali nambala atomiki 14. moyandikana ndi mpweya si mwangozi: ambiri katundu wawo mofanana. Sanapezeke m'chilengedwe mu mawonekedwe woyengeka, ngati chinthu udakali ali ndi chomangira mokwanira amphamvu ndi oxygen. Base zakuthupi - silika, yomwe ndi oxide ndi silicates (mchenga). Pamene pakachitsulo izi (pawiri zachilengedwe) ndi imodzi mwa zinthu ambiri mankhwala dziko. Misa kachigawo zili ndi yokha mpweya (kuposa 28%). Pamwamba kutumphuka wosanjikiza lili pakachitsulo woipa mu mawonekedwe (khwatsi izi), mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya clays ndi mchenga. The chachiwiri ambiri gulu wapangidwa silicates ake. Pa akuya pafupifupi 35 kuchokera ku zigawo pamwamba imakonzedwa lubwe ndi basalt madipoziti, monga mankhwala pakachitsulo. Chiwerengero zili pakati lapansi palibe asanaganize panobe, koma pafupi ndi zigawo padziko pakhoma (mpaka 900 km) akupanga silicates. The zikuchokera ndende m'madziwo pakachitsulo ndi 3 mg / L, mwezi nthaka 40% imakhala mankhwala. Cosmos, zomwe anthu Tsikulo anafufuza nkhani zimenezi mchitidwe mankhwala lalikulu zedi. Mwachitsanzo, kawalidwe kusanthula wa meteorites, yomwe ikuyandikira pansi pa mtunda chilipo ofufuza, zasonyeza kuti iwo zigwirizana 20% ya pakachitsulo. Pali kuthekera kwa mapangidwe moyo chifukwa cha mchitidwe uwu mu mlalang'amba wathu.

ndondomeko kafukufuku

Mbiri ya Kupezeka kwa mankhwala mchitidwe pakachitsulo ali magawo angapo. zinthu zambiri, systematized Mendeleev, ntchito ndi anthu kwa zaka zambiri. Komanso, zinthu ziri mu mawonekedwe a chirengedwe, ine .E. mu mankhwala zimene mankhwala ankachitira, ndipo katundu wawo wonse adali osati kwa anthu. Mu ndondomeko ya kuphunzira mbali zonse za chinthu anaonekera ntchito zina zatsopano. The katundu wa pakachitsulo kuti tsiku sizinachitike anaphunzira mpaka mapeto - amafotokozera izi ndi mokwanira lonse ndi osiyanasiyana osiyanasiyana ofunsira masamba chipinda kutulukira zinthu zatsopano kalekale m'mibadwo yanu asayansi. zamakono adzakhala kwambiri imathandizira pa ntchito imeneyi. M'zaka za m'ma XIX, ambiri akatswiri otchuka ndakhala ndikuyesa kupeza pakachitsulo koyera. Kwa nthawi yoyamba kotheka kuti Tenaru L. ndi J. Gay-Lussac mu 1811, koma atulukira amafotokozera ali J. Berzelius, amene anali wokhoza amaulula thunthu, komanso kufotokoza izo. Zamankhwala ku Sweden muli pakachitsulo mu 1823, pakuti izi iye ntchito zachitsulo potaziyamu ndi mchere potaziyamu. Zimene zinachitika pa chothandizira mu mawonekedwe a kutentha. Chifukwa yosavuta mankhwala imvi bulauni mtundu ndi amorphous pakachitsulo. Crystal mchitidwe angwiro zopezera 1855 Sainte-Kler Devilem. zovuta kumvetsa mwachindunji zokhudzana Kugawilidwa kwanthaka wa mkulu mphamvu zomangira atomiki. Nthawi zonse, zimene mankhwala imatsogoleredwa ndi ndondomeko ya chiyeretso ku zodetsa, zitsanzo amorphous ndi crystalline ndi katundu osiyana.

Pakachitsulo: mankhwala mchitidwe katchulidwe

Dzina loyamba ufa chifukwa - Kizel - anali bungwe Berzelius. Ku United Kingdom ndi United States pakachitsulo ndipo lero amatchedwa pakachitsulo (Silicium) kapena silikoni (pakachitsulo). Mawu akuti zichokela ku Latin mawu akuti "mwala" (kapena "mwala"), ndipo nthawi zambiri amamangidwa ndi lingaliro "dziko lapansi" chifukwa kufalikira lonse mu chirengedwe. Russian katchulidwe ka mankhwala ndi osiyana, izo zonse zimadalira gwero. Iye ankatchedwa silika (Zakharov ntchito mawu amenewa 1810), Sicily (1824, Dvigubsky, Solovyov), silika (1825, mantha), ndipo kokha mu 1834, ku Russia sayansi German Ivanovich Gess anayambitsanso dzina mpaka tsopano ntchito magwero ambiri - pakachitsulo. The nthawi ndi nthawi Mendeleyev System iye anasankha chizindikiro Si. Kodi kuwerenga mankhwala mchitidwe pakachitsulo? Akatswiri ambiri a mayiko Chingelezi kutchula dzina lake monga "B" kapena kugwiritsa ntchito mawu akuti "silikoni". Choncho dziko wotchuka dzina la chigwa, umene ndi kufufuza ndi kupanga nsanja hardware kompyuta. anthu Chirasha amatanthauza chinthu pakachitsulo (kuchokera ku mawu a Chigiriki "phompho Mountain").

Kukhala chikhalidwe: minda

Lonse machitidwe phiri wapangidwa ndi mankhwala pakachitsulo, omwe sapezeka mtundu woyera, chifukwa mchere onse odziwika ndi dioxides kapena silicates (aluminosilicates). Kukongola chodabwitsa miyala ntchito ndi anthu monga chuma ndi yokongola - izo opals, amethysts, khwatsi mtundu, yasipi, ndi kalikedo, sibu, thanthwe Krustalo, carnelian ndi ena ambiri. Iwo anapanga chifukwa pakutchulidwa wa mankhwala osiyanasiyana pakachitsulo amene anatsimikiza za osalimba, kapangidwe, mtundu ndi malangizo a ntchito. Unikani dziko zochita kupanga zikhoza kugwirizana ndi chimodzimodzi mankhwala amafotokozera, amene chilengedwe ndipamene mgwirizano wolimba ndi zitsulo kapena zitsulo (nthaka, magnesium, calcium, manganese, titaniyamu ndi zina zotero. D.). Poyerekezera ndi zinthu zina, pakachitsulo mwachilungamo mosavuta kwa m'zigawo pa sikelo mafakitale: ameneyu amapezeka mu mitundu ambiri ores ndi mchere. Choncho, mwachangu ncho madipoziti umanena magwero angakwanitse mphamvu kuposa masango m'zigawozo kanthu. Quartzites ndi khwatsi mchenga akupezeka m'mayiko onse. Ambiri opanga yaikulu ndi ogulitsa pakachitsulo ndi: China, France, Norway, United States (West Virginia, Ohio, Alabama, New York), Australia, South Africa, Canada, Brazil. opanga zonse ntchito zosiyanasiyana, omwe zimadalira mtundu wa mankhwala (luso, michenga yopangira zida zamagetsi, mkulu-pakachitsulo). Chemical mchitidwe Polemeretsedwa Komanso kapena Kapenanso, mwayeretsa ku mitundu yonse zosafunika ali katundu aliyense wa potsata ntchito zake zina. Izi imakhudzanso thunthu. Pakachitsulo dongosolo amasonyeza kuchuluka kwa tanthauzo lake.

Mbiri ya ntchito

Nthawi zambiri, chifukwa cha kufanana kwa mayina a anthu kusokoneza pakachitsulo ndi mwala, koma mfundo imeneyi si zofanana. Ndife bwino. Monga tanenera kale, mu chikhalidwe, pakachitsulo sapezeka mu maonekedwe ake angwiro, sitinganene za kugwirizana (ndi silika yomweyo). Mchere chachikulu ndi miyala anapanga woipa tiganizire chinthu - ndi mchenga (madzi ndi silika), khwatsi ndi quartzite, feldspar ndi mwala. Yotsirizira anamva ayenera onse, chifukwa kwapatsidwa zofunika kwambiri mbiri ya anthu. Ndi muvale zipangizo mwala anthu pa Age Stone. m'mbali ake lakuthwa chifukwa cha zisamayoyoke ya maziko olimba a, kwambiri facilitates ntchito ya amayi akale, ndi kuthekera Kukulitsa - alenje komanso asodzi. Mwala analibe mphamvu ya mankhwala zitsulo, koma zida analephera akhoza m'malo. zake ntchito monga mwala inatenga zaka zambiri - mpaka atayamba magwero zina.

Pankhani zenizeni lero, katundu wa pakachitsulo n'zotheka kuti amapotoza nkhani yokongola kapena chilengedwe cha tableware ceramic, ndi, kuwonjezera pa zabwino maonekedwe zokongoletsa, iwo ali ndi makhalidwe ena angapo kwambiri zinchito. A malangizo osiyana tanthauzo lake chifukwa cha kutulukira galasi za 3000 zapitazo. chochitika anapereka mwayi kulenga kalirole, mbale, othimbirira galasi zithunzi za mankhwala okhala pakachitsulo. Chilinganizo zinthu koyamba wodzilemekeza zigawo zikuluzikulu zofunika, kulola mankhwala kupereka mtundu anakhumba ndi zotsatira pa mphamvu ya galasi. Amazing kukongola ndi zosiyanasiyana ntchito zaluso zinalengedwa ndi munthu kuchokera mchere ndi miyala munali pakachitsulo. Kuchiritsa katundu wa chinthu ichi yatchedwa ndi asayansi a kale ntchito mu mbiri ya anthu. Iwo anaika zitsime kwa kumwa yosungirako madzi mankhwala ntchito tsiku ndi tsiku ndi mankhwala. The ufa akamagwira umapezeka anali ntchito ku mabala. chidwi linaperekedwa kwa madzi amene amalamula mu mphika anapanga mankhwala okhala pakachitsulo. Chemical maelementi alumikizirana ndi izo, kulola chiwerengero kuwononga tizilombo toyambitsa matenda ndi tizilombo. Ndipo izo siziri kumabungwe onse kumene tiganizire chinthu kwambiri, kwambiri akumufuna. pakachitsulo dongosolo amachititsa multifunctionality ake.

katundu

Kuti mudziwe zambiri zokhudza maonekedwe a zinthu m'pofunika kuganizira, kutenga nkhani katundu zonse zitheka. Plan makhalidwe mchitidwe pakachitsulo mankhwala monga thupi katundu, magawo magetsi, mankhwala kuphunzira ndi zinthu anachita, ndipo chotero mavesi awo. G. pakachitsulo mu mawonekedwe crystalline ali ndi mdima imvi mtundu ndi zachitsulo Sheen. Nkhope zawo zokha latisi kiyubiki wa Nzoipa mpweya (diamondi), koma chifukwa kutalika zikuluzikulu za kulumikizana si monga wamphamvu. Pulasitiki amachita kutentha kwa 800 ^{° C,} nthawi zina, ikhala wosalimba. The thupi katundu wa pakachitsulo kupanga izo chinthu chapadera: ndi zowonekera ku cheza infuraredi. Limatsogolera mfundo - 1410 ⁰ C ndi kuwira - 2600 ⁰ C, kachulukidwe m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa - 2330 makilogalamu / mamita ^3. Matenthedwe madutsidwe si mosalekeza zitsanzo zosiyanasiyana ndi analandira mwa kufunika pafupifupi 25 ⁰ C. The katundu wa atomu pakachitsulo kulola ntchito yake michenga yopangira zida zamagetsi a. ofunsira amenewa ndi ambiri mu ankafuna masiku ano. Ukulu wa madutsidwe umakhudza zikuchokera pakachitsulo ndi nyengo, ndi molumikizana ndi iwo. Choncho, chifukwa madutsidwe kuzikonzanso pakompyuta ntchito antimony, Arsenic, phosphorous, chifukwa perforated - zotayidwa, gallium, boron, indium. Polenga zipangizo ndi pakachitsulo ntchito ngati kalozera chithandizo pamwamba ndi wothandizila, amene amakhudza ntchito zida za.

The katundu wa pakachitsulo ngati wochititsa kwambiri ntchito kwambiri m'madera chida chamakono. Makamaka zofunika ntchito mu kupanga zida chipangizo (mwachitsanzo, masiku ano kompyuta zipangizo, makompyuta).

Pakachitsulo: khalidwe mankhwala amafotokozera

Nthawi zambiri, pakachitsulo ndi tetravalent, palinso kulankhulana chimene angathe awiri. M'mikhalidwe wabwinobwino ndi bwino yogwira, ali pawiri amphamvu firiji zitha anatani ndi fluorine mu gaseous boma akaphatikiza. Ichi ndi chifukwa cha kutchinga zotsatira woipa pamwamba film, amene asunga mwa mogwirizana ndi mpweya yozungulira kapena madzi. Kuti Zimachititsa zosiyanasiyana zofunika ntchito chothandizira: kuwonjezeka kutentha ndi abwino kwa zinthu monga pakachitsulo. Chemical mchitidwe amachitira ndi mpweya 400-500 ⁰ C, chifukwa woipa filimu ukuwonjezeka, ndondomeko makutidwe ndi okosijeni. Pamene kutentha liukitsidwa 50 ⁰ C anachita ndi bromine, chlorine, ayodini, umene tetrahalides oyaka anapanga. Ndi zidulo pakachitsulo Kodi samva, kupatulapo chisakanizo cha asidi hydrofluoric ndi nitric, pamene aliyense soda mu mkhalidwe mkangano ndi zosungunulira. Silanes opangidwa okha ndi kuwonongeka kwa silicides mu anachita ndi haidrojeni samalowa izo. The apamwamba mphamvu ndi mankhwala mankhwala amasiyana passivity ndi boron ndi mpweya. Zonyamula alkalis ndi zidulo, ndi pawiri la asafe, amene amapezeka pa kutentha pa 1000 ⁰ C. The silicides akamagwira anachita ndi zitsulo, ndipo mu nkhani iyi zimadalira valency wa amafotokozera wowonjezera, lomwe limasonyeza pakachitsulo. Chilinganizo mankhwala anapanga ndi nawo chitsulo kusintha kugonjetsedwa zidulo. Kapangidwe ka atomu pakachitsulo likukhudza katundu ndi luso kucheza ndi zinthu zina. The ndondomeko ya mapangidwe nsinga mu chikhalidwe ndi atadziŵa thunthu (zasayansi, malo mafakitale) chimasiyana kwambiri. Pakachitsulo dongosolo adzatenge ntchito zake mankhwala.

kapangidwe

Kapangidwe dera la atomu pakachitsulo ali makhalidwe yake. Mlandu pachimake 14 womwe ndi akuyambira chiwerengero mu dongosolo nthawi. Chiwerengero cha particles mlandu: mapulotoni - 14; elekitironi - 14; neutrons - 14. Kapangidwe dera la atomu pakachitsulo ndi zotsatirazi: Si +14) 2) 8) 4. otsiriza (kunja) elekitironi mlingo ali 4 kumene kumatsimikizira mlingo wa makutidwe ndi okosijeni ndi chizindikiro "+" kapena "-". Pakachitsulo okusayidi ali chilinganizo SiO ₂ (valence 4+), ndi loopsali pawiri wa hydrogen - SiH ₄ (valence wa -4). Wambirimbiri pakachitsulo maatomu mungathe ena mankhwala ndi mgwirizano nambala ya 6, monga pawiri ndi fluorine. Molar misa - 28 atomiki utali wozungulira - 132 Sal, ndi elekitironi chipolopolo kasinthidwe: 1s 2S ^{2 2} 3S ^{2 6} 2P 3P ^2.

ntchito

Surfactants kapena kwathunthu doped pakachitsulo ntchito ngati michenga yopangira zida zamagetsi pa chilengedwe cha ambiri, kuphatikizapo mwatsatanetsatane, zipangizo (mwachitsanzo, maselo dzuwa, transistors, rectifier ndi T. D.). Ultrapure pakachitsulo ntchito kulenga maselo dzuwa (mphamvu). Mtundu umodzi galasi ntchito kupanga kalirole ndi mpweya laser. mankhwala pakachitsulo analandira galasi, matailosi ceramic, mbiya, zadothi ndi dothi. The zosiyanasiyana mitundu ya katundu opangidwa zovuta kufotokoza, yokumba awo amapezeka mu moyo wa tsiku ndi tsiku, luso ndiponso sayansi, kuntchito. Simenti chifukwa ndi zopangira kulenga kasakaniza ndi zipangizo njerwa kuwamaliza. Kufalitsa mafuta, lubricants zochokera mankhwala silikoni angathe kuchepetsa mikangano mu magawo yoyamikira njira zambiri. Silicides chifukwa wapadera katundu mu aukali TV kauntala (zidulo, kutentha) ankagwiritsa ntchito makampani. magetsi, nyukiliya ndi mankhwala zizindikiro zawo kuganizira akatswiri pa chuma zovuta, ilibe ang'ono ndi kapangidwe ka atomu pakachitsulo.

Ife kutchulidwa kwambiri zina zamakono ndi za- tsiku ntchito. Ambiri, amene amapangidwa lalikulu zedi zaumisiri pakachitsulo ntchito mu njira zingapo:

1. Monga zopangira kwa kupanga chinthu choyera.
2. Pakuti alloying makampani zitsulo: pamaso pa pakachitsulo kumawonjezera refractoriness, bwino kukana dzimbiri ndi mphamvu mawotchi (ndi owonjezera mchitidwe uwu, aloyi akhoza kukhala kwambiri Chimaona).
3. Monga deoxidizer kochotsa mpweya owonjezera ku zitsulo.
4. zipangizo za ulimi wa silanes (Si mankhwala ndi zinthu organic).
5. Kupanga wa hydrogen wa aloyi pakachitsulo zitsulo.
6. Yopanga mapanelo dzuwa.

mtengo waukulu wa mankhwala ndi kugwira ntchito za masiku onse thupi la munthu. Pakachitsulo dongosolo, katundu wake ali mu nkhani imeneyi. Pankhaniyi, ndi ubweya kapena kupanda kumayambitsa matenda aakulu.

Thupi la munthu

Mankhwala kwa nthawi yaitali ntchito pakachitsulo monga bactericidal ndi antiseptic. Koma ndi phindu lonse ntchito panja amafotokozera izi ziyenera atsopano amalowa m'thupi la munthu. Kambiri wa wokhutira adzasintha moyo. Mu chochitika cha kupanda kufufuza zinthu zoposa 70 ndi mavitamini iwo zimapukusidwa ndi thupi, ndilo kwambiri m'munsi kukaniza zosiyanasiyana matenda. The apamwamba kuchuluka pakachitsulo zimawonedwa mu fupa, khungu, tendons. Iye atenge mbali ya chinthu structural amene amathandiza mphamvu ndi amapereka elasticity. Onse chigoba minofu molimba anapanga likuvutika mankhwala ake. Chifukwa cha maphunziro posachedwapa anapeza pakachitsulo zili mu impso, kapamba ndi zimakhala connective. Udindo wa matupi awa mu kugwira ntchito kwa thupi lalikulu, kotero kuchepetsa wokhutira chimawononga yaikulu zizindikiro zambiri kiyi zofunika pamoyo. Tsiku ndi chakudya ndi thupi madzi ayenera kulandira 1 galamu ya pakachitsulo - ikuthandizani kupewa matenda zotheka monga kutupa kwa khungu, pokonza mafupa, mapangidwe miyala chiwindi, impso, kusawona bwino, tsitsi ndi zinthu msomali, atherosclerosis. Pamene mlingo okwanira zili izi chitetezo chokwanira mchitidwe ukuwonjezeka, normalizes kagayidwe, mayamwidwe wa zinthu zambiri zofunika kuti thanzi la munthu. Kuchuluka waukulu wa silika - mu mbewu Palestina ankalima, buckwheat. Adzabweretsa phindu kwa madzi pakachitsulo. Kuti mudziwe chiwerengero ndi pafupipafupi ntchito bwino kukaonana ndi katswiri.