Atomu umagwirira - ndi ... Chitsanzo cha maatomu. Kapangidwe ka maatomu

Malingaliro mmene pamalo anayamba kukaona anthu Pasanapite nthawi heyday wa chitukuko chamakono. Choyamba, anthu ankati za kukhalako kwa ena wamphamvu kwambiri, zomwe, iwo anakhulupirira anakonzeratu munthu lonse. Koma posakhalitsa, nzeru ena ndi ansembe anayamba kuganizira mfundo zimene zoona, ndiye nsalu aliko. Nthanthi akhazikitsidwa, koma zakhala zikuchitika anakhala lalikulu atomiki.

ndi atomu Kodi mu umagwirira? Izi, komanso nkhani onse ogwirizana tikambirana chiyani m'nkhani ino. Tikukhulupirira kuti inu mudzapeza mayankho a mafunso anu onse.

Woyambitsa wa chiphunzitso atomiki

Kodi umagwirira poyamba phunziro lisanayambe? Kapangidwe ka atomu - Nkhani yaikulu. Inu mukhoza kukumbukira kuti mawu akuti "atomu" latembenuzidwa kuchokera ku Chigiriki monga "indivisible". Tsopano, azambiriyakale ambiri amakhulupirira kuti poyamba akufuna chiphunzitso, zomwe ena a particles ting'onoting'ono ta amene amapanga zonse kuti alipo, Democritus. Anakhala zana lachisanu BC.

Mwatsoka, a woganiza chapadera chilichonse amadziwika. Iwo sizinawakhudze ife kwina kulikonse olembedwa a nthawi imeneyo. Ndipo chifukwa cha masikolala chachikulu munthawi yake, maganizo, tiyenera kuphunzira kokha kwa ntchito za Aristotle, Plato ndi anzeru ena Greek.

Choncho mutu wathu - "Kapangidwe ka maatomu." Mu umagwirira, osati onse anali kuonera, koma ambiri amakumbukira kuti mfundo zonse za sayansi wakale zinamangidwa nzeru inferences. Democritus sanali yekha.

Pamene ndinayamba kuganiza Democritus?

mfundo wake anali lophweka, koma pa nthawi yomweyo waluntha. Tiyerekeze kuti muli ndi mpeni sharpest mu dziko. Inu kutenga apulo Mwachitsanzo, kenako anayamba kudula izo: amachepetsa awiri mu kumpanda, gawani iwo ... Mu mawu, posapita nthawi udzapeza magawo chochepa makulidwe kuti apitirize kugawanitsa iwo adzakhala aliko kale zosatheka. Apa zidzakhala indivisible atomu. Mu umagwirira, mfundo imeneyi imatengedwa woona pafupifupi kwa zaka za m'ma 19.

Kuyambira Democritus malingaliro amakono

Tikumbukenso kuti ku malingaliro wakale Greek wa microcosm anakhalabe mawu amodzi okha "atomu". Tsopano aliyense schoolchild amadziwa kuti dziko lonse wapangidwa zambiri wachibadidwe ndi ndalama. Komanso, pa kaonedwe sayansi yamakono, chiphunzitso cha Democritus anali ndi nkhambakamwa chabe masovedwe mwangwiro Wonenedwa, sagwirizana ndi mwamtheradi umboni. Komabe, masiku amenewo kunalibe microscopes elekitironi, kotero kutsimikizira izo mwa njira zina pa woganiza sibwenzi zinachitika.

Kukayikitsa koyamba kuti Democritus kwenikweni pomwepo pa akatswiri a. Mwamsanga anapeza kuti ambiri mwa mankhwala kuphwanya m'zigawo chosavuta pa zotani. Komanso, anabweretsa regularities mankhwala aakulu a pasukuluyi. Choncho, iwo anaona kuti zimatengera eyiti misa nusu ya mpweya ndi china cha madzi - haidrojeni (malamulo Avogadro a).

Mu Middle Ages, chiphunzitso chirichonse zakuthupi, kuphatikizapo chiphunzitso cha Democritus, kugawa ndi chitukuko sakanakhoza kufika pa onse. Ndipo kokha m'zaka XVIII, asayansi kamodzinso anabwerera ku chiphunzitso atomiki. Pa nthawi imene sayansi Lavoisier chathu chachikulu M. V. Lomonosov ndi luso English sayansi D. Dalton (zomwe tikambirana payokha), ndi chooneka moti anasonyeza anzawo chenicheni cha maatomu. Kuyenera anatsindika kuti ngakhale ŵakusanga m'ma 18 chiphunzitso atomiki kwa nthawi yaitali ambiri maganizo chabwino cha nthawi imeneyo mofatsa.

Chirichonse chimene icho chinali, koma ngakhale asayansi aakulu awa sizinathe kuika patsogolo chiphunzitso cha kapangidwe ka atomu, Iye anali m'gulu ndi indivisible tinthu, chifukwa cha zonse.

Mwatsoka, zatsopano mankhwala sakanakhoza bwino kutsimikizira chenicheni cha kutembenuka kwa ena maatomu mu zinthu zina. Koma sayansi lofunika kwambiri kuphunzira kapangidwe ka atomu zinafika zimapangidwira. Maatomu ndi tinthu afufuza kwa nthawi yaitali, waluntha Russian asayansi, popanda zomwe n'zosatheka kuyerekezera sayansi yamakono.

Chiphunzitso D. I. Mendeleeva

A mbali yaikulu mu chitukuko cha chiphunzitso atomiki ankaimba D. I. Mendeleev, amene mu 1869 analenga nthawi dongosolo kwambiri. chiphunzitso A waperekedwa kwa asayansi, omwe osati sanakane, koma mfundo zomveka yothandizana materialists onse. Kale m'zaka za m'ma 19, asayansi anatha kutsimikizira kuli ma elekitironi. anapezazo onsewa anatsogolera maganizo abwino kwa zaka za m'ma 20 mpaka kwambiri kuphunzira atomu. Mu umagwirira nthawi iyi anali yodziwika ndi zambiri kutulukira.

Koma chiphunzitso cha Mendeleyev zopindulitsa osati kwa izi. Palibe amene amadziwa bwinobwino mmene mawonekedwe maatomu a zinthu zosiyanasiyana mankhwala. Koma chachikulu Russian wasayansi anatha kutsimikizira momveka kuti onse, popanda yekha, zikugwirizana kwambiri ndi mzake.

Oyamba Dalton

Koma kuti athe kumasulira deta angapo anthuwo akanakhoza kokha Dzhon Dalton, dzina muyaya okhala mu anapeza lamulo limene. Childs, asayansi afufuza yekha khalidwe la mipweya, koma osiyanasiyana zinthu zinali onse zambiri. Mu 1808 iye anayamba kufalitsa ntchito yake yatsopano ofunika.

Iwo Daltons ankaganiza kuti aliyense mchitidwe mankhwala limafanana ndi atomu yeniyeni. Koma wasayansi, monga Democritus zaka zambiri pamaso pake, anakhulupirirabe kuti ali limodzi kwathunthu. Mu drafts zambiri zojambula diagrammatic, imene maatomu akuimira mu mawonekedwe a pellets yosavuta. mfundo imeneyi, yomwe anayambitsa zaka zoposa 2,500 zapitazo, inatenga pafupifupi tsiku lino! Komatu ndi posachedwapa wakhala anapeza dongosolo kwenikweni zakuya za maatomu. Zimapangidwira (kalasi 9 makamaka) ngakhale lero makamaka motsogozedwa ndi maganizo amene poyamba anafuulira m'nthawi ya 18.

Experimental kutsimikizira kwa divisibility maatomu

Komabe, pafupifupi onse asayansi ankaganiza kuti atomu kwa zaka za m'ma 19 - malire yoposa imene palibe. Iwo ankaganiza kuti maziko a chilengedwe chonse momwemo. Izi anali ntchito ndi zosiyanasiyana zatsopano: chirichonse munthu anganene, koma zomwe yekha molekyulu, pamene mlingo ndi maatomu a thunthu sizinkachitika chilichonse chimene sanathe anafotokoza umagwirira chabe. Kapangidwe ka maatomu mpweya Mwachitsanzo, akhala zikutsatiridwa kwathunthu ngakhale mu maiko osiyana allotropic.

Mwachidule, kwa nthawi yaitali, kulibiretu deta experimental kuti osachepera modzizimbayitsa anatsimikizira kukayikirana wa asayansi ena kuti pali ena particles kwambiri ofunika. Only m'zaka 19 (mosalephera chifukwa cha zinachitikira Curies) izo anawonetsedwa kuti akamaziwononga maatomu a chinthu china akhoza lidzasinthidwa ena. apezazi kupanga maziko a malingaliro amakono za m'dzikoli.

Zoumba ndi puddings

Mu 1897, George. Thomson, English wasayansi, chinapezeka kuti atomu iliyonse pali ena kuchuluka kwa particles zoipa mlandu, umene umatchedwanso "ma elekitironi". Kale mu 1904, wasayansi atalenga atomiki chitsanzo, amene amadziwika pansi lakuti "maula pudding". dzinali bwino kwambiri amasonyeza chofunikira. Zozikidwa pa chiphunzitsocho Thomson la atomu mu umagwirira - ndi "chotengera" ndi uniformly anagawira m'menemo mlandu ndi ma elekitironi.

Onani chitsanzo ichi chinali kupezeka ngakhale m'zaka 20. Patapita kuti n'kulakwa kwambiri. Komabe, anali woyamba amazindikira kuyesa munthu (ndipo tsiku ndi sayansi) kuti recreate microcosm ozungulira, akupereka chitsanzo cha maatomu, wosavuta kumva.

Zimene Curie

Akukhulupirira kuti banja, Pierre ndi Mariya Kyuri maziko a sayansi atomiki. Kumene, mfundo za anthu awa a namatetule Ndipotu nsembe thanzi lake ndi moyo, sakhoza saganizira, koma mmakhalidwe awo anali kwambiri ofunika. Pafupifupi imodzi ndi Rutherford asatipangiza kuti atomu - ndi zambiri zovuta ndi dongosolo sakanikira. The chodabwitsa cha mpweya wa poizoni, amene iwo kufufuza, ndizo pafupi ndi nkhani.

Kumayambiriro kwa chaka cha 1898 Maria lofalitsidwa nkhani yoyamba zoyenera cheza. Posachedwa Mary ndi Per Kyuri asonyeza kuti chisakanizo cha mankhwala chlorinated wa ureniamu ndi Analandira ayamba kuoneka zinthu zina, kuli omwe sankakhulupirira umagwirira boma. Kapangidwe ka atomu wakhala atayamba kufufuza mwakhama.

"Planetary" njira

Pomaliza Rutherford anaganiza heavy metal atomu bombardment α-particles (kwathunthu ionized helium). wasayansi wina adati ma elekitironi kuwala sangathe kusintha njira yodutsamo Nyerere apaulendo. Choncho, kupezeka zingachititse ena zigawo ankawonjezereka yekha kuti akhoza ali phata la atomu ya. Nthawi yomweyo, tiona kuti choyambirira Rutherford sankadzinenera kuti kusintha "pudding" chiphunzitso. machitidwe a atomu ankaona wopanda.

Choncho zotsatira pafupifupi onse particles popanda mavuto anadutsa wosanjikiza zonyalazo siliva, si kudabwa. Izo basi pasanapite nthawi zinadziwika kuti ena maatomu helium anali anapanduka ° 30. Izo sizinali zoyenera kunena pa umagwirira nthawi. Zikuchokera malinga Thomson atomu ankaganiza yunifolomu kufalitsidwa kwa ma elekitironi lapansi. Koma ichi ndi zosemphana ndi zochitika anaona.

N'kovuta kwambiri, koma ena particles anaulukira ku cham'mbali, ngakhale 180 °. Rutherford anali mu kuthedwa nzeru zakuya. Pajatu zikuchepa zosemphana ndi "pudding", mlandu umene ukuyenera kukhala (malinga ndi chiphunzitso Thomson) wogawana kugawa. Choncho m'goli mlandu malo amene akanakhoza kubweza helium ionized, zinakambidwa.

Kodi mfundo kubwera Rutherford?

zinthu izi asayansi chinachititsa kuganiza kuti atomu ndi makamaka kanthu ndi yekhayo pakati kuganizira ena maphunziro ndi mlandu zabwino - ngale. Ndipo panali chitsanzo mapulaneti wa maatomu, amene postulates zotsatirazi:

• Monga tanena kale, anati, ili m'chigawo chapakati cha pakati, ndi buku wake (poyerekeza ndi kukula kwa atomu lokha) ndi negligible.
• Pafupifupi onse misa atomiki, komanso onse mlandu zabwino zimapezeka phata la.
• Ma elekitironi zokhudza izo. Nkofunika kuti chiwerengero chawo ndi wofanana ndi mtengo positive.

chiphunzitso paradoxes

Onse zikanakhala zabwino, koma chitsanzo cha atomu sifotokoza sichisinthasinthanso awo zosaneneka. Tiyenera kukumbukira kuti ma elekitironi kusuntha m'njira ndi mathamangitsidwe kwambiri. Ndi malamulo onse a electrodynamics chinthu pa nthawi, ayenera kutaya mlandu wake. Ngati ife kuganizira postulates wa Newton ndipo Maxwell, ndi ma elekitironi onse ayenera kutha kwathunthu, ngati matalala pansi.

Ndithudi, palibe chinthu choterocho zikuchitika kwenikweni. atomu iliyonse osati kugonjetsedwa ndithu, koma pangakhale nthawi malire ndithu, mmene palibe poizoni ameneyu si chokani. zikusiyana Izi anafotokoza chifukwa choti microworld ndi tikuyesetsa kutsatira malamulo chomveka okha ulemu okonzera zachikhalidwe. Iwo kunapezeka kuti atomiki-ang'ono zochitika ndi zosafunika konse. Ndipo chifukwa kapangidwe ka atomu (Chemistry, kalasi 11) olemba buku kufotokoza mmene ndingathere mu mawu osavuta.

chiphunzitso Bohr a

Chidanishi sayansi Niels Bohr zatsimikiziridwa kuti microcosm sangathe azitsatira malamulo yemweyo, zinthu zosiyanasiyana zomwe chomveka kwa zinthu macroscopic. Ilo linali lingaliro lake kuti microcosm a "kutsogoleredwa" potsatira malamulo kwadzidzidzi. Kumene, ndiye panalibe chiphunzitso kwadzidzidzi yokha, koma Bor kwenikweni anayamba makolo ake, maganizo awo mu mawonekedwe a postulates atatu kuti "wopulumutsidwa" atomu, izo, zivute zitani kuphedwa, ngati "moyo" malinga ndi mfundo Rutherford. Iwo chiphunzitso chimenechi Dane maziko a zimango zonse kwadzidzidzi.

postulates Bohr a

• The woyamba awerenga dongosolo lililonse atomiki kungakhale kokha limati yeniyeni atomiki, ndipo aliyense wa iwo ndi zina mtengo khalidwe la mphamvu (E). Ngati n'kupuma boma la maatomu (chete), ndiye zimatulutsa sizingausunge.
• The zopanda wachiwiri anena kuti umuna wa mphamvu ya kuwala kumachitika kokha ngati kusintha kwa boma ndi mphamvu zambiri mu apakatikati. Choncho, mphamvu anamasulidwa ndi wofanana ndi kusiyana kwa makhalidwe pakati limati awiri n'kupuma.

Niels Bohr chitsanzo cha maatomu

wasayansi adafotokoza mu 1913 ndi chiphunzitso semiclassical. N'zochititsa chidwi kuti maziko ake adayika mapulaneti chitsanzo cha Rutherford, amene atatsala pang'ono anafotokoza atomu zinthu. Ife tanena kale kuti chakale zimango kuwerengetsera Rutherford mwake: pamaziko a izo, iyo ankaganiza kuti ndi nthawi elekitironi anali wotsimikiza kugwa padziko maatomu.

Kuti "kuzungulira" kutsutsana imeneyi, wasayansi wakhala anayambitsa chikuonetseratu wapadera. Kwenikweni ake kwagona kuti limatulutsa mphamvu (yemwe ankayenera kuti atsogolere kutha), ma elekitironi likhoza kusunthira mu kanjira iliyonse. Pamene kusuntha monga trajectories ena ankati mankhwala maatomu kukhala mu chikhalidwe chabe. Malingana ndi chiphunzitso Bohr a, m'mipita amenewa ndi anthu kachulukidwe mfundo kayendedwe amene anali wofanana ndi zonse Planck a.

Chiphunzitso kwadzidzidzi dongosolo atomiki

Monga tanena kale, chibwenzi, mu nthawi ya chiphunzitso kwadzidzidzi dongosolo atomiki. Umagwirira M'zaka zaposachedwapa potsatira ake. Bukuli lili axioms anayi ofunika.

1. Choyamba, duality (corpuscular-yoweyula chikhalidwe) wa elekitironi yokha. Mwachidule, ndi tinthu khalidwe ndi mmene zinthu chinthu (a corpuscle), ndipo mafunde. Monga tinthu ali ndi mlandu yeniyeni ndi misa. Luso la ma elekitironi kwa mapindidwe akuwala ofanana ndi mafunde zachikhalidwe. Chomwechi yoweyula kutalika (λ) ndi tinthu mathamangidwe (v) zina amakhalanso ndi mzake ndi wapadera de A Broglie ubale: λ = H / MV. Mukhoza ndikuganiza, M - unyinji wa elekitironi lapansi.

2. ndondomeko ndi velocities particles kuyeza mwandondomeko mtheradi ndi zosatheka. Molondola kwambiri anatsimikiza ntchito kwambiri, kumachitika mu mathamangidwe lapansi. Monga Komabe, ndi mosemphanitsa. zodabwitsazi amatchedwa Heisenberg njakata, sipangakhalenso zowonetseredwa ndi ubale zotsatirazi: Δx ∙ mamita ∙ Δv> Z / 2. Delta X (Δh) analongosola njakata malo amene amayang'anira danga. Choncho, ankadziwana V (Δv) akuimira zolakwa liwiro.

3. Mosiyana ndi onse chikhulupiriro kale anthu ena, ma elekitironi chiyani kudutsa m'mipita ndi mosamalitsa chimatanthauza sitima pa njanji. chiphunzitso kwadzidzidzi amanena kuti elekitironi akhoza kukhala mu Msikiti mu mlengalenga, koma Mwina izi ndi zosiyana aliyense gawo.

Gawo la malo mwachindunji padziko phata atomiki limene Mwina izi ndi yayikulu, amatchedwa yozungulira. Modern umagwirira dongosolo la zipolopolo za elekitironi ma atomu a maphunziro ku mfundo imeneyi. Kumene, sukulu amaphunzitsidwa yogawa yolondola ya ma elekitironi mwa zimatiyika, koma, osalephera, kwenikweni zosiyana mosiyana.

4. Phata zikuphatikizapo atomu a nucleons (mapulotoni neutrons). The siriyo chiwerengero cha amafotokozera mu tebulo nthawi akusonyeza nambala ya mapulotoni mu phata ake, ndi Uwerenge mapulotoni neutrons ndi wofanana ndi unyinji atomiki. Pano pali kufotokozera kapangidwe ka atomu phata kapangidwe ka lero.

Anayambitsa kwadzidzidzi zimango

Onani asayansi amene anapanga zopereka kwambiri chitukuko cha gawo ili yofunika: French wasayansi Louis de Broglie, Heisenberg German, Austria, Schrodinger, ndi England Dirac. Anthu onsewa patapita kupereka ya Nobel Prize.

Mpaka kukafika dongosolo anapita umagwirira? Mankhwala kapangidwe ka atomu, ambiri a zaka ankaona osavuta: zambiri yekha mu 1947 potsiriza anazindikira chenicheni cha kuli particles pulayimale.

zinthu zina

Nthawi zambiri, pamene munakonza chiphunzitso kwadzidzidzi sanali popanda masamu, monga onse a pasukuluyi kuchita masamu okha ndi ntchito kuwerengetsera zovuta. Koma vuto chachikulu si mfundo. The zomwe zafotokozedwa ndi mfundo imeneyi, alipo osati kuti maso athu, ngakhale zamakono zonse za sayansi, komanso m'maganizo.

Palibe munthu, ngakhale ena simungathe kulingalira njira mu microcosm, monga iwo sanali zochitika zonse zomwe timaona macrocosm lapansi. Tangoganizani za atulukira posachedwapa kupereka zifukwa kuganiza kuti quarks, neutrinos ndi tinthu ena lofunika kulili naini gawo (!). Pamene munthu tikukhala mu malo atatu azithunzi omwe tikunena, ngakhale pafupifupi kufotokoza khalidwe lawo?

Pa nthawi, tingadalire yekha pa masamu ndi mphamvu ya makompyuta ano, zomwe mwina adzakhala ntchito kayeseleledwe yaying'ono-dziko. N'zochititsa chidwi amathandiza ndi umagwirira: atomiki dongosolo ndithu yantchito, pambuyo asayansi posachedwapa ntchito m'munda uwu, kuti, atulukira mtundu watsopano wa mankhwala muzikondana.

Lingaliro yamakono ya kapangidwe ka maatomu

Ngati mwawerenga mosamala zonse za pamwamba, inu mwina adzakhala wokhoza kunena zimene masiku ano chithunzi cha kapangidwe ka atomu kanthu. Koma ife kufotokoza: izo penapake kusinthidwa chiphunzitso cha Rutherford, wodzilemekeza ndi mfundo bwino kwambiri Niels Bohr. Mwachidule, lero amaona kuti ma elekitironi kusuntha mu wachisokonezo, njira amaona padziko phata, amene wapangidwa neutrons ndi mapulotoni. Gawo la danga kuzungulira ilo, imene elekitironi Mosakayika yatsoka amatchedwa yozungulira.

Ngakhale sikutheka kutchula idzasintha kumvetsetsa kwathu kwa kapangidwe atomiki m'tsogolo. Tsiku lililonse, asayansi ntchito pa malowedwe mu zinsinsi za microcosm ndi: ndi LHC (Large Hadron Collider), Mphoto Nobel mu sayansi - zonsezi ndi chifukwa cha deta kafukufuku.

Koma ngakhale tsopano ife simungathe kulingalira ndi pafupifupi chithunzi cha mmene akadali kubisa maatomu. Zikuonekeratu yekha kuti atomu lokha pa sikelo ya microcosm wa - yaikulu nyumba nyumba, mu zomwe takambirana kupatula pansi woyamba, ndipo ngakhale ndiye bwinobwino. Pafupifupi chaka chilichonse pali malipoti zokhuza kuthekera kutsegula koposa latsopano particles pulayimale. Pamene ndondomeko ya kafukufuku wa maatomu adzakhala kwathunthu watha, sadzakhala ntchito kulosera lero.

Wokwanira kuti maganizo athu a iwo anayamba kusintha yekha mu 1947 pamene otchedwa V-particles anali anatulukira. Izi zisanachitike, anthu kwangochepetsako pang'ono chabe chinakula chiphunzitso chimene m'ma 19 inachokera zimapangidwira. Kapangidwe ka maatomu - ndi chidwi chithunzi kuthetsa amene wotanganidwa maganizo abwino a anthu.