Ndi zinthu mankhwala chiyani? Dongosolo ndi khalidwe la zinthu mankhwala a

A zambiri zinthu zosiyana ndi zinthu, zamoyo ndi matupi za m'chilengedwe zopanda moyo otizungulira. Ndipo iwo onse ali zikuchokera awo, kapangidwe, katundu. Mu moyo anthu mutuluka zosiyanasiyana zovuta amuzolengedwa kuti ayende njira ya moyo. mtembo ntchito mosiyana mu chibadwa ndipo amagwiritsa ntchito ngati nkhuni zimakhala zovuta maselo ndi atomiki dongosolo.

Koma onse pamodzi zinthu za m'dziko lathuli ndi mbali wamba: iwo wapangidwa ambiri ting'onoting'ono ta structural otchedwa ma atomu a zinthu mankhwala. Ndi ang'onoang'ono kwambiri motero kuti apoyera sakuona iwo. ndi zinthu mankhwala chiyani? makhalidwe Kodi ali ndi mmene anadziŵa moyo wawo? Yesetsani kumvetsa.

Lingaliro la zinthu zimachitikira

Kumvetsa ochiritsira wa zinthu mankhwala - izo chabe mawonekedwe anasonyeza maatomu. The particles amene amapanga zonse kuti alipo m'chilengedwe chonse. Kuti ndi funso "kodi zinthu zimachitikira" angapereke yankho. Izi ang'onoang'ono nyumba zovuta isotopes onse maatomu pamodzi, ophatikizana wamba dzina ndi cizindikilo mawonekedwe (chikhalidwe).

Today za 118 kudziwika zinthu zimene akalipo onse mu pompo-pompo komanso synthetically mwa kuchita zochita nyukiliya wa kuvunda nyukiliya wa mtima maatomu ena. Aliyense ali ndi makhalidwe, malo awo mu dongosolo wonse, kutsegula kwa nkhani ndi dzina, komanso amachita ntchito pa chikhalidwe ndi moyo wa zamoyo. Kuphunzira zinthu izi zikugwira sayansi zimapangidwira. Mankhwala zinthu - ndi maziko yomanga mamolekyulu onse mankhwala yosavuta kumvetsa, ndiponso ankachita motero mankhwala.

History of anapeza

Luntha la zinthu zimene mankhwala, si mu XVII m'ma cha ntchito yabwino ya Boyle. Zinali iye amene anayamba kulankhula za lingaliro ili ndi anawapatsa tanthauzo zotsatirazi. Izi ang'onoang'ono indivisible yosavuta mankhwala, amene pali chilichonse, kuphatikizapo zamoyo zonse.

Patsogolo ntchito imeneyi inatha chogwidwa ndi maganizo a asayansi, ife kulandira chiphunzitso cha zinthu zinayi - Empidokla ndi Aristotle, komanso poyera "kuyaka chiyambi" (sulfure), ndi "woyamba wa zitsulo" (Mercury).

Pafupifupi XVIII m'ma waperekedwa chiphunzitso olakwika kwathunthu kwa phlogiston. Komabe, pa mapeto a nthawi ino, Antuan Loran Lavuaze anasonyeza kuti untenable. Ndi bwino pobwereza chiphunzitso Boyle, koma anamaliza pofuna ake oyamba dongosolo zonse zodziwika pa zinthu nthawi, kugawira iwo m'magulu anayi: zitsulo ankafuna kusintha zinthu mopitirira lapansi nonmetals.

Ikuluikulu sitepe yotsatira kumvetsa zimene zimapanga mankhwala, kupanga Dalton. Iye akutchedwa atulukira misa atomiki. Pa mfundo imeneyi, izo kugawira mbali ya odziwika mankhwala zinthu mu dongosolo la kuwonjezeka atomiki misa.

Likunena mofulumira chitukuko cha sayansi ndi umisiri inu kuti chiwerengero cha atulukira zinthu zatsopano mu zikuchokera matupi achilengedwe. Choncho ndi 1869 - zolengedwa zazikulu za nthawi D. I. Mendeleeva - sayansi anadziwa kuti kuli zinthu 63. Ntchito ya sayansi Russian anali buku loyamba ndi kwanthawizonse okhazikika gulu la particles izi.

Kapangidwe ka zinthu zimachitikira nthawi alibe akhazikitsidwa. Iye akhapidziwa kuti atomu ndi indivisible, ndi unit zazing'ono. Anatulukira cha mpweya wa poizoni zatsimikiziridwa kuti lagawidwa m'magawo inatheka. Pafupifupi aliyense Choncho alipo mu mawonekedwe a isotopes angapo achilengedwe (particles ofanana koma ndi chiwerengero osiyanasiyana neutrons nyumba, umene umasiyana misa atomiki). Choncho, mwa zaka za m'ma otsiriza, anapambana pa kudziŵa kuti ndi maganizo chinthu mankhwala.

Dongosolo la zinthu zimachitikira

Maziko a sayansi anaika kusiyana misa atomiki ndi anakwanitsa njira wanzeru kukonza zinthu zonse zodziwika mankhwala kuti za kuwonjezeka. Komabe, kuya ndi kunyezimira maganizo ake sayansi ndi moyang'ana m'tsogolo chinali Mendeleyev anasiya mipata akusowekapo pa dongosolo lanu, lotseguka maselo kwa zinthu koma wosadziwika, limene, mogwirizana ndi asayansi, adzatsegulidwa m'tsogolo.

Ndipo zonse kunapezeka chimodzimodzi monga adanena. Zinthu mankhwala nthawi zodziwitsa unadzaza maselo onse kanthu. lililonse asayansi ananeneratu dongosolo chatsegulidwa. Ndipo tsopano tikhoza kunena kuti dongosolo la zinthu mankhwala ukufanizidwa ndi mayunitsi 118. Komabe, atatu otsiriza kutsegula silinakwaniritsidwe mwalamulo anatsimikizira.

Palokha, kachitidwe ka zinthu mankhwala anasonyeza momveka tebulo lomwe zinthu imakonzedwa monga katundu wawo masanjidwe anapatsa mitima ndi mbali structural la zipolopolo za elekitironi maatomu. Choncho, pali nthawi (7 zidutswa) - mizere yopingasa, magulu (8 zidutswa) - ofukula, boma gulu (waukulu ndi kumzere wakumbali mwa gulu lililonse). Nthawi zambiri payokha mu zigawo za mmusi za tebulo anagonjera mizere iwiri ya mabanja - ndi lanthanides ndi actinides.

dongosolo Mendeleev ndi nthawi muli mfundo zonse zofunikira za zinthu mankhwala (nambala siriyo, chiwerengero misa, dzina, zina zakale zigawo a dongosolo la zamagetsi).

maina Part

Ufulu kupereka dzina munthu amene mwafufuza wa zinthu mankhwala. Ambiri ali ndi mayina mapulaneti (ureniamu, nyukiliyazo basi, neptunium). Ena anapatsidwa dzina polemekeza ophunzira opambana (mendelevium, Rutherford, Copernicium ndi ena).

zinthu nthawi zambiri dzina la mizinda ndi mayiko (ruthenium, germanium, Dubna, France, Europe ndi ena). Lonjezo la ngakhale kutumikira otchuka monga nthano (promethium). Ndi wamba chodabwitsa pamene dzina makamaka wapatsidwa pa katundu anasonyeza mwa zinthu yosavuta zovuta za chinthu anapatsidwa (wa hydrogen, Mpweya).

maina awo analembedwa mu Latin, koma m'dziko lathu pali kumasulira Russian wa katchulidwe awo molimba. Chizindikiro cha aliyense mchitidwe amaona kuti kalata yoyamba mawu Latin, kapena woyamba ndi aliyense wotsatira. CHITSANZO: kashiamu (Ca) - calcium, boron (B) - Boron.

Khalidwe mankhwala mchitidwe maatomu

Aliyense woimira dongosolo zodziwitsa ali makhalidwe chake pa dongosolo ndi katundu osauka. Khalidwe mankhwala mchitidwe wapangidwa zikuchokera kusanthula phata ndi zipangizo zigawo zake komanso tanthauzo la mankhwala osavuta, iwo anapanga, ndipo mankhwala zovuta.

Zikuchokera phata maatomu wa zinthu mankhwala chikuphatikizapo kuchuluka kwa particles - nucleons:

• mapulotoni adziwe mlandu wake zabwino (p ^{+ 1),} ndi mbali ya unyinji atomiki;
• neutrons zokhudza nambala misa amafotokozera ndi opanda mlandu (n ^0).

mtundu wina wa particles - ma elekitironi. Iwo muziyendayenda pakati ndipo ali ndi mlandu zoipa (e ^-1). kuonetsa si wachisokonezo, koma mosamalitsa analamula. Iwo ili orbitals ndi (s, p, D ndi f), zomwe ndi sublevels ndi milingo (pakompyuta zigawo).

Unyinji atomiki la mchitidwe wapangidwa wa mapulotoni neutrons, kuchotsedwa wotchedwa "misa chiwerengero". chiwerengero cha mapulotoni limanenedwa zapamwamba - ndi wofanana ndi chiwerengero ordinal wa amafotokozera mu dongosolo. Ndipo ngati atomu ambiri - dongosolo electroneutral, i.e. palibe mlandu, chiwerengero cha ma elekitironi zoipa nthawi zonse wofanana ndi chiwerengero cha zabwino particles mapulotoni.

Choncho, maonekedwe a chinthu mankhwala angaperekedwe ndi malo ake mu dongosolo nthawi. Pambuyo selo akufotokozedwa pafupifupi chirichonse, siriyo chiwerengero, kutanthauza kuti ma elekitironi ndi mapulotoni, kulemera atomiki (mtengo avareji isotopes zonse zilipo za mchitidwe wa). Iwo Tingaone mu chomwe chili kapangidwe (choncho, ma elekitironi adzakhala ili mu zigawo ambiri). N'zothekanso kulosera chiwerengero cha particles zoipa yotsirizira mlingo mphamvu kwa zinthu gulu lalikulu - ndi wofanana ndi chiwerengero gulu limene katunduyo ili.

chiwerengero cha neutrons kuchita masamu ndi Kuchotsera ku misa mapulotoni, mwachitsanzo, chiwerengero siriyo. Choncho, tingathe kupeza ndi kupanga lonse elekitironi mapindidwe akuwala chilinganizo aliyense mchitidwe kukhala chimodzimodzi kusonyeza matabwa ake ndi kusonyeza zotheka mmene makutidwe ndi okosijeni ndipo akusonyeza katundu.

zinthu yogawa m'chilengedwe

Kuphunzira nkhani ino yakhala sayansi - danga zimapangidwira. deta amasonyeza kuti kufalitsidwa kwa zinthu pa dziko amatsatira chitsanzo m'chilengedwe chonse. Ndiwo mtima kuwala, maatomu katundu ndi sing'anga ndi zochita nyukiliya akusinthira nyenyezi - nucleosynthesis. Chifukwa njira izi, chilengedwe ndi m'mlengalenga amathandiza dziko lathuli ndi zonse zinthu zilipo mankhwala.

A okwana 118 oimira odziwika wa zachilengedwe, anthu anapezeka 89. Ichi ndi chofunikira kwambiri, maatomu ambiri. Mankhwala zinthu nawonso apanga chongopeka ndi nyutironi bombardment a mtima (nucleosynthesis m'mikhalidwe zasayansi).

Ochuluka kuposa amaonedwa zinthu yosavuta zinthu monga asafe, mpweya, haidrojeni. Kaboni m'gulu zinthu zonse organic, choncho ali ndi udindo kutsogolera.

Gulu la dongosolo la zamagetsi maatomu

Mmodzi wa classifications ambiri mbali zonse mankhwala - kufalitsidwa kwa iwo pa maziko a dongosolo la zamagetsi. Ndi momwe milingo mphamvu zambiri m'gulu chigoba cha atomu ndipo muli otsiriza a iwo valence ma elekitironi, pali magulu anayi a zinthu.

S-zinthu

Ndi aja amene yotsirizira ladzala m-yozungulira. banja Izi zikuphatikizapo zinthu za gulu loyamba la gulu lalikulu (kapena zitsulo soda). Only elekitironi imodzi mlingo akunja amasonyeza katundu zofanana wa oimira onse wothandizila amphamvu kuchepetsa.

P-zinthu

A okwana ndalama 30. Valence ma elekitironi ili pa tsamba-sublayer. Zimenezi ndi zinthu zimene kupanga subgroups waukulu wachitatu gulu chitatu zokhudzana nthawi 3,4,5,6. Pakati pawo pali zitsulo ndi zinthu mmene zachitsulo pa katundu.

D-f-zinthu ndi zinthu

kusintha zitsulo pa 4 ndi 7 nthawi yaitali. 32 zinthu yathunthu. Zambiri zinthu akhoza kuonetsa onse acidic ndi zofunika katundu (makutidwe ndi okosijeni ndi kuchepetsa). Komanso, amphoteric, mwachitsanzo duality.

K f-banja zikuphatikizapo lanthanides ndi actinides, imene ma elekitironi ali pa wotsiriza f-orbitals.

Zinthu popangidwa ndi zam'mwamba: yosavuta

Komanso, magulu onse a zinthu mankhwala angathe maonekedwe a mankhwala enaake kapena zovuta. Choncho, yosavuta ankaona kuti amene anapanga kwa kapangidwe chomwecho zedi osiyana. Mwachitsanzo, O ₂ - kapena mpweya dioxygen ndi O ₃ - Mpweya umene. zodabwitsazi amatchedwa allotropes.

Zambiri mankhwala zinthu kupanga dzina yemweyo mankhwala khalidwe lililonse woimira dongosolo nthawi. Koma si onse ofanana katundu chionetsero. Choncho, pali yosavuta mankhwala zitsulo ndi nonmetals. Woyamba subgroups lalikulu kupanga 1-3 gulu ndi subgroups onse tebulo mbali. Non-zitsulo komanso kupanga subgroup akuluakulu a magulu 4-7. The eyiti zofunika ndi wapadera - wolemekezeka kapena inert mpweya.

Mwa onse otsegula pa zinthu yosavuta masiku ano amadziwika m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa mpweya 11, madzi zinthu 2 (bromine ndi Mercury), ndi ena onse - olimba.

mankhwala ovuta

Kwa iwo anavomera kuti zonse, zimene zigwirizana zinthu ziwiri kapena zambiri mankhwala. Zitsanzo za misa, chifukwa mankhwala ndife oposa 2 miliyoni! salt ichi, oxides, zidulo ndi zapansi, zovuta mankhwala zovuta, zinthu zonse organic.