Kapangidwe mankhwala zinthu

Kwa nthawi yaitali asayansi nthawi ndayesera kubweretsa chiphunzitso logwirizana limene limafotokoza kapangidwe ka tinthu, katundu zawo zikufotokozedwa poyerekezera ndi zinthu zina. Kuti tichite zimenezi iwo anali kufotokoza chikhalidwe ndi kapangidwe ka atomu, kuti atchule maganizo "valence", "elekitironi kachulukidwe" ndi ena ambiri.

Background pa chiphunzitso

Mankhwala kapangidwe ka mankhwala oyamba chidwi Italy Amadeus Avogadro. Iye anayamba kuphunzira maselo kulemera zosiyanasiyana mpweya pamaziko a awo kuzipenya atapereka kungoganizira za awo dongosolo. Koma si koyamba kuti afotokoze inasanduka ndipo anadikira mpaka anzake zotsatira zofanana. Kenako, njira kupeza kulemera maselo mpweya wa anadziwika monga lamulo Avogadro a.

Chiphunzitso chatsopano zinachititsa asayansi ena kuphunzira. Ena mwa iwo anali Lomonosov, Dalton, Lavoisier, Proust, Mendeleyev ndi Butlerov.

chiphunzitso Butlerova

Mawu akuti "chiphunzitso cha dongosolo mankhwala" woyamba anaonekera mu mbiri ya kapangidwe ka zinthu, zomwe mu 1861 ankaimira Germany Butlerov. Atafika zikutsatiridwa m'mabuku wotsatira ndi molimba m'mbiri ya mbiri ya sayansi. Zinali nyengo yachisanu ikupita ndi ziphunzitso atsopano. Mu pepala lake, wasayansi ananena maganizo ake pa kapangidwe mankhwala zinthu. Naŵa mfundozo:

- maatomu mu mamolekyulu chikugwirizana ndi mzake zochokera chiwerengero cha ma elekitironi mu orbitals awo akunja;
- kusintha ndondomeko ya kugwirizana maatomu amachititsa kusintha katundu wa molekyulu ndi maonekedwe a chinthu chatsopano;
- mankhwala ndi thupi katundu zipangizo zimadalira si zokhazo zomwe maatomu gawo la ilo, koma lamulo chaubale kwa wina ndi mzake, ndi kuwasokoneza mwagwirizana;
- kuti aone zikuchokera maselo ndi atomiki cha chuma, m'pofunika kuchita unyolo wa masinthidwe motsatizana.

Kapangidwe zojambula za mamolekyulu

Kapangidwe ka maatomu ndi tinthu mankhwala inatha patapita zaka zitatu ndi Butlerov. Iwo anayambitsanso mu sayansi chodabwitsa isomerism, postulating kuti, ngakhale kukhala ndi Mkhalidwe zikuchokera koma dongosolo losiyana, chinthu lidzakhala losiyana ndi mnzake angapo zizindikiro.

Patapita zaka khumi, pali chiphunzitso cha dongosolo atatu azithunzi omwe tikunena za mamolekyulu. Izo zonse akuyamba ndi buku la van't Hoff chiphunzitso chake cha valences a dongosolo quaternary mpweya atomu. asayansi amakono kuzindikira mbali ziwiri stereochemistry: structural ndi okhudza malo.

Nawonso gawo structural ndi anagawa mu isomers mafupa ndi malangizo. Ichi ndi chofunika kwambiri kuphunzira zinthu organic pamene Mkhalidwe zikuchokera malo amodzi ndi zazikulu pansi chokha hydrogen ndi mpweya maatomu mankhwala ndi ndondomeko zawo molekyulu ndi.

Okhudza malo isomerism chofunika zonsezi kumene ma atomu imakonzedwa mu dongosolo lomwelo pamene pali kugwirizana, koma danga la molekyulu ndi osiyana. Wakutali isomers kuwala (pamene stereoisomers ofanana mzake), diastereoisomers, isomers zojambula, ndipo ena.

Maatomu mu mamolekyulu

Chakale mankhwala kapangidwe ka molekyulu zikutanthauza kuti muli atomu. Hypothetically, zikuonekeratu kuti atomu mu molekyulu ndi zingasiyane ndi zingasiyane ndi katundu wake. Izo zimatengera chimene maatomu ena anazungulira izo, mtunda wa pakati pawo ndi limasonyeza kuti kupereka mphamvu mamolekyulu.

akatswiri a masiku ano pofuna kugwirizanitsa relativity ambiri ndi chiphunzitso kwadzidzidzi linachokera ngati pawopawo chifukwa chakuti pa mapangidwe molekyulu atomu masamba okha pachimake, ndi ma elekitironi, ndipo sukukhalakonso. Inde, chiphunzitso ichi sanabwere yomweyo. zoyesayesa angapo kuti apulumutse atomu monga gulu la molekyulu, koma sanathe kukumana maganizo wouma.

Kapangidwe, mipweya ya maselo

Lingaliro la "zikuchokera" amatanthauza mgwirizano wa zinthu zonse zimene zimakhudzidwa mapangidwe ndi selo ntchito. mndandanda kumaphatikizapo pafupifupi onse zinthu za tebulo zodziwitsa:

- zinthu eyite sikisi nthawi zonse pano;
- twente-faifi a iwo deterministic kwa moyo wabwinobwino;
- pafupi twente kofunika kutero.

opindula asanu amatsegula mpweya zili mu foni akubwera peresenti sevente-faifi mukachipinda. Iwo aumbike mwa kuwonongeka kwa madzi zofunika kupuma chipinda ndipo amapereka mphamvu kwa zochita zina ankachita mankhwala. Womutsatira kufunika - mpweya. Ndi maziko a zinthu zonse organic komanso gawo lapansi dzuwa. Mkuwa wolandira wa hydrogen - amafotokozera wambiri m'chilengedwe chonse. Ndi mbali ya organic pawiri chamadzi ndi mpweya wa. Madzi ndi Mbali yofunika kwambiri. Wolemekezeka chachinayi malo ali wotanganidwa ndi asafe koyenera kuti mapangidwe amino zidulo ndi, monga Motero, mapuloteni, michere ndi ngakhale mavitamini.

Kapangidwe ka maselo mankhwala ndi zinthu zochepa otchuka monga calcium, phosphorous, potaziyamu, sulfure, chlorine, sodium, ndi magnesium. Pamodzi, chifukwa cha za munthu peresenti ya ndalama okwana thunthu mu selo. Ndalama komanso ndi mme- zinthu ndi ultramicroelements zili zamoyo mu kufufuza ndalama.