Kodi chakudya udindo wa chakudya mu thupi

Chemical katundu wa maselo kupanga ndi zamoyo zimadalira kwenikweni chiwerengero cha maatomu mpweya apanga 50% mwa kulemera youma. Mpweya maatomu ndi waukulu organic zinthu: mapuloteni, zidulo mkati lipids ndi chakudya. Sichanzeru zikuphatikizapo carbonyl pawiri ndi madzi lolingana njira (CH ₂ O) _N, kumene N ndi wofanana kapena kuposa atatu. Kuwonjezera mpweya wa hydrogen ndi oxygenation, mu molekyulu akhoza monga phosphorous, asafe, sulfure. M'nkhani ino tikukambirana udindo wa chakudya mu thupi, komanso makhalidwe a dongosolo lawo, katundu ndi ntchito.

Gawo

Gulu la mankhwala mu sayansi ndi magulu atatu: yosavuta dzuwa (monosaccharides), polymeric mankhwala ndi Mgwirizano glycosidic - oligosaccharides ndi biopolymers kulemera mkulu maselo - polysaccharides. Tatchulawa makalasi zinthu zopezeka zosiyanasiyana selo. Mwachitsanzo, pali shuga ndi wowuma nyumba chomera, glycogen - mu hepatocytes anthu, ndi maselo makoma a bowa, ndi chitin - mu kunja arthropods mafupa. Onse zinthu pamwamba - ndi chakudya. Udindo wa chakudya mu thupi konsekonse. Iwo - zofunika chachikulu cha mphamvu kwambiri m'thupi la chomera maselo, mabakiteriya, nyama ndi anthu.

monosaccharides

Ndi onse chilinganizo C _N H _{2 N} O _N ndipo anawagawa m'magulu malinga ndi kuchuluka kwa maatomu mpweya mu molekyulu ndi: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, ndi zina zotero. Monga mbali ya organelles selo ndi cytoplasm wa dzuwa yosavuta ndi masanjidwe awiri okhudza malo: liniya ndi chingelengele. Mbali yoyamba, ndi mpweya maatomu olumikiza wina ndi mzake kudzera covalent nsinga Sigma ndi mawonekedwe anatseka zingwe zopota, ngati wachiwiri mpweya mafupa si anatseka ndipo mwina nthambi. Kudziwa zimene ndi udindo wa chakudya mu thupi, taganizirani ambiri a iwo - ndi pentose ndi hexose.

Isomers: shuga ndi fructose

Ali yemweyo maselo chilinganizo C ₆ H ₁₂ O _6, koma mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya maselo structural. Ife poyamba anaitanidwa ntchito yaikulu ya chakudya ku zamoyo - mphamvu. Zinthu pamwamba unagwa ndi selo. Chifukwa ndi kutulutsidwa kwa mphamvu (17.6 KJ tidziwe a shuga). Komanso, mamolekyulu 36 ATP ndi apanga. shuga kuwonongeka amapezeka pa nembanemba ndi (cristae) mitochondria ndipo umaimira unyolo zochita enzymatic - ndi Krebs mkombero. Iye ndi mbali yofunika ya dissimilation osefukira maselo zonse zamoyo heterotrophic eukaryotic.

Shuga ndi inakhazikitsanso myocytes ku nyama chifukwa akuwaza mu minofu glycogen. Mu m'tsogolo, ntchito monga mankhwala mosavuta decomposable monga kupereka maselo ndi mphamvu - ichi ndi udindo waukulu chakudya m'thupi. Zomera ndi phototrophs ndi paokha kupanga shuga pa dzuwa. zochita zimenezi zimatchedwa Calvin mkombero. Nkhani kuyambira ndi mpweya woipa ndi acceptor - ribolozodifosfat. Kaphatikizidwe wa shuga akupezeka chloroplast masanjidwewo. Fructose, kukhala ndi maselo chilinganizo monga shuga, lili mu molekyulu ndi gulu zinchito za ketones. Iye lokoma kuposa shuga, ndi uchi ndi madzi a zipatso ndi zipatso. Choncho, ntchito zamoyo chakudya m'thupi lili makamaka ntchito ngati gwero mofulumira mphamvu.

Udindo wa chibadwa mu pentose ndi

Tiyeni tikambirane gulu lina la monosaccharides - ribose ndi deoxyribose. apadera kwagona kuti iwo ali mbali ya ma polima - zidulo mkati. Zamoyo zonse, kuphatikizapo mitundu si ma moyo, DNA ndi RNA ndi onyamula waukulu mudziwe cholowa. Ribose ali nawo mu RNA molekyulu ndi nucleotides deoxyribose ali DNA. Choncho, ntchito zamoyo chakudya mu thupi kuti nawo mapangidwe mayunitsi cha chibadwa - majini ndi DNA.

Chitsanzo pentose munali ndi aldehyde gulu ndipo ambiri mu ufumu mbewu ndi xylose (ali umatheka ndi mbewu), alpha-arabinose (kusungidwa mu m'kamwa mitengo mwala zipatso). Choncho kugawa ndi udindo zamoyo chakudya mu thupi la zomera apamwamba ndi okwanira.

oligosaccharides Kodi

Ngati zatsalira kwa maselo a monosaccharides, monga shuga kapena fructose, yogwirizana ndi nsinga covalent, ndi oligosaccharides anapanga - polymeric chakudya. Udindo wa chakudya mu thupi la zomera ndi nyama zosiyanasiyana. Izi ndi zoona makamaka disaccharides. Ambiri mwa iwo sucrose, lactose, maltose ndi trehalose. Choncho, sucrose, mwinamwake kudziwika monga nzimbe kapena Beet shuga, ali zomera monga njira ndi kusungidwa mu mizu kapena zimayambira. Hydrolysis wa molekyulu anapanga shuga ndi fructose. Mkaka shuga, lactose analengedwa ndi nyama. Kwa ena, pali tsankho kwa mankhwala kugwirizana ndi hyposecretion enzyme lactase, yomwe imaphwanya mkaka shuga galactose ndi shuga. Ntchito ya moyo wa chamoyo chakudya osiyanasiyana. Mwachitsanzo, disaccharide trehalose lopangidwa zatsalira awiri shuga, gawo la hemolymph wa nkhanu, akangaude, tizilombo. Komanso amapezeka maselo a bowa ndi zina algae.

disaccharide wina - Maltose, kapena chimera shuga, ali caryopses balere kapena rye mu kumera awo, ndi molekyulu ongokhala zatsalira awiri shuga. Iwo aumbike mwa oipa wa masamba kapena nyama wowuma. Mu intestine ka anthu ndi nyama maltose lamamatira ndi enzyme ndi - maltase. Sanamwe mu madzi pancreatic aonekera kudwala chifukwa cha tsankho ndi wowuma chakudya glycogen kapena masamba mankhwala. Pankhaniyi, kudya zakudya zapadera ndipo anawonjezera kuti chakudya chabwino cha enzyme yokha.

Zovuta chakudya m'chilengedwe

Iwo ali ambiri, makamaka mu dziko masamba ndi biopolymers ndi mkulu maselo kulemera. Mwachitsanzo, wowuma ziri 800 000, ndipo zamkati - 1 600 000. The polysaccharides amasiyana zikuchokera monomers, ndi digiri polymerization, ndi utali unyolo. Mosiyana ndi dzuwa yosavuta oligosaccharides amene ali mosavuta sungunuka m'madzi ndipo ndi zokoma kukoma, polysaccharides hydrophobic ndi zoipa. Taganizirani udindo wa chakudya mu thupi laumunthu ngati chitsanzo cha glycogen - wowuma nyama. Iwo apanga ochokera shuga ndi chosungikira hepatocytes ndi maselo chigoba minofu, kumene wokhutira ndi kawiri kuposa mu chiwindi. Ndi mapangidwe glycogen komanso amatha subcutaneous mafuta, neurocytes ndi macrophages. polysaccharide wina - masamba wowuma ndi mankhwala a dzuwa ndipo zinabala mu plastids wobiriwira.

Kuyambira pachiyambi penipeni pa chitukuko anthu, ogulitsa waukulu wowuma mbewu wapatali: mpunga, mbatata, chimanga. Iwo adakali maziko a zakudya ambiri a anthu padziko lapansi. N'chifukwa chake ndi lofunika chakudya. Udindo wa chakudya mu thupi, monga taonera, mu ntchito yawo monga momwe organic kulamulira ndipo mwamsanga zidyeke.

Pali gulu la polysaccharides amene ali monomers zatsalira asidi hyaluronic. Iwo akutchedwa pectins ndipo ndi zomangira za zomera maselo. Makamaka wolemera iwo peel maapulo, Beet zamkati. Ma zinthu pectins zonse kuthamanga okhudza maselo ambiri - turgor. Makampani Confectionery, iwo ntchito ngati gelling ndi thickening wothandizira kupanga apamwamba mitundu marshmallow ndi zakudya. The zakudya ntchito ngati mankhwala biologically yogwira bwino deducing poizoni kwa m'matumbo.

glycolipids Kodi

Ndi chidwi gulu la mankhwala ovuta chakudya ndi mafuta amene ali minofu mantha. Amakhala ubongo ndi chingwe msana nyama. Glycolipids zimapezekanso mu zikuchokera nembanemba selo. Mwachitsanzo, mabakiteriya zimakhudzidwa ojambula selo foni. Ena mwa mankhwala amenewa ndi antigens (zinthu kudziwa Landsteiner AB0 dongosolo gulu magazi). Mu maselo nyama, zomera ndi anthu, koma glycolipids, alipo ndi osiyana mamolekyulu mafuta. Iwo amagwira makamaka mphamvu ntchito. Pa pogawanikana pamawere tidziwe mafuta 38,9 KJ mphamvu adzamasulidwa. Kapangidwe ntchito (mbali ya selo nembanemba) kuti lipids amagwiritsidwa yodziwika. Choncho, ntchito zoterezi zimagwiridwa ndi chakudya mafuta. udindo wawo thupi zedi mkulu.

Ntchito ya chakudya lipids mu thupi

Maselo anthu ndi nyama zingaoneke interconversions wa polysaccharides ndi mafuta zikuchitika chifukwa cha kagayidwe. Asayansi ndi akatswiri a zinthu zakudya anapeza kuti kudya kwambiri zakudya kukhuthala kumabweretsa kudzikundikira mafuta. Ngati munthu ali ndi matenda a kapamba mwa mawu kudzipatula kapena amylase kumabweretsa moyo wongokhala, kulemera akhoza kwambiri. M'pofunikanso kukumbukira kuti chakudya zimam'patsa kulemera unagwa makamaka duodenum shuga. Iye anatenga capillaries za villi za m'mimba kakang'ono ndipo anamuika mu chiwindi ndi minofu monga glycogen. The zambiri tima kuwombola zinthu mu thupi, m'pamenenso ng'ambidwa shuga. kenako ntchito ngati maselo chachikulu, ulusi amphamvu. Mfundozi zikupereka yankho la funso udindo ankaimba ndi chakudya, ndi thupi la munthu.

Tanthauzo la glycoproteins

Mankhwala a gulu la zinthu ukufanizidwa ndi zimam'patsa zovuta + mapuloteni. Iwo akutchedwa glycoconjugates. Izi oteteza, mahomoni, Kakhungu dongosolo. Latest maphunziro amuzolengedwa anakhazikitsa kuti ngati glycoproteins amayamba kusintha mbadwa zake (achilengedwe) kapangidwe, tidzapeza chitukuko cha matenda amenewa zovuta monga chifuwa cha mphumu, nyamakazi, khansa. Udindo wa glycoconjugates mu kagayidwe wa khungu ndi mkulu. Mwachitsanzo, interferon ziletsa chulutsa mavairasi, immunoglobulins kuteteza thupi ndi tizilombo toyambitsa matenda. mapulotini magazi komanso a gulu la zinthu. Iwo kuteteza buffering katundu. Zonse mwa ntchito pamwamba zikutsimikiziridwa ndi chakuti ntchito thupi chakudya m'thupi ndi osiyanasiyana ndi zofunika kwambiri.

Kodi ndi mmene chakudya anapanga

Major ogulitsa dzuwa yosavuta zovuta - chomera wobiriwira: algae, spore apamwamba, gymnosperms ndi maluwa. Iwo onse ali ndi pigment maselo chlorophyll. Iye ali gawo la thylakoid - nyumba chloroplasts. Russian wasayansi KA Timiryazev anaphunzira ndondomeko ya photosynthesis, chifukwa mu chakudya mapangidwe. Udindo wa chakudya mu thupi la zomera ndi kudzikundikira wowuma zipatso, mbewu ndi mababu, mwachitsanzo, mu ziwalo vegetative. dzuwa limagwirira m'malo ovuta imakhala ndi mndandanda wa zochita enzymatic kuti chichitike onse mu kuwala ndi mdima. Shuga ndi apanga ku mpweya woipa pansi zochita za michere. zamoyo Heterotrophic ntchito zomera zobiriwira monga gwero la chakudya ndi mphamvu. Choncho, zomera ndi kugwirizana yoyamba onse maunyolo chakudya ndipo amatchedwa alimi.

Maselo a heterotrophic zamoyo chakudya apanga mu njira yosalala (agranular) endoplasmic reticulum. Kenako ntchito ngati mphamvu ndi zomangila. Mu chomera maselo chakudya Komanso kupangidwa mu Golgi, ndi kupita n'kupanga cellulosic khoma selo. Mu ndondomeko ya chimbudzi pawiri nyama inakhala wolemera mu chakudya, pang'ono zikugwetsedwa pansi mu mkamwa ndi m'mimba. Main dissimilation zochita omwewo akapezeka duodenum ndi. Monga yaima pancreatic madzi okhala amylase enzyme cleaves wowuma ndi shuga. Monga zanenedwa kale, shuga ndi odzipereka mu magazi mu intestine kakang'ono ndipo anafalikira maselo onse. Apa izo ntchito ngati gwero mphamvu ndi chuma structural. Ikufotokoza ntchito kuti chakudya kusewera mu thupi.

Nadmembrannye maofesi maselo heterotrophic

Iwo khalidwe la nyama ndi bowa. The zikuchokera mankhwala ndi gulu maselo a nyumba izi awa akuimira mankhwala monga lipids, mapuloteni ndi chakudya. Udindo wa chakudya mu thupi - izo kumatanthauza mphamvu kagayidwe ndi nyumba zimagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana. Maselo anthu ndi nyama ndi makamaka structural chigawo otchedwa glycocalyx. Izi woonda pamwamba wosanjikiza wapangidwa glycolipids ndi glycoproteins kugwirizana ndi Kakhungu cytoplasmic. Imakhala ulalo mwachindunji ndi kunja kwa maselo. Apa pakubwera amaonera zikuchitika ndi extracellular chimbudzi. Chifukwa maselo awo zimam'patsa chipolopolo n'kudziphatika kwa kupanga mzake nsalu. zodabwitsazi amatchedwa guluu wolimba kwambiri. Ifenso kuwonjezera kuti "michira" wa mamolekyulu zimam'patsa anapeza padziko khungu ndi akuuzidwa mu madzimadzi interstitial.

gulu lina la zamoyo heterotrophic - bowa zida ali ndi padziko, wotchedwa khoma selo. Pamafunikanso zovuta dzuwa - chitin, glycogen. Mitundu ina ya bowa muli chakudya sungunuka monga trehalose, wotchedwa bowa shuga.

Nyama unicellular monga ciliates, pamwamba wosanjikiza - pellicle mulinso maofesi oligosaccharide ndi mapuloteni ndi lipids. Ena yosavuta pellicle woonda zokwanira ndi samaletsa kusintha mawonekedwe thupi. Koma ena thickens ndipo wolimba ngati zida zolimba, akuchita ntchito yake yoteteza.

khoma chomera selo

Lilinso yambiri chakudya, makamaka mapadi asonkhanitsa mitolo ya ulusi. nyumba izi kupanga, ndi kumizidwa mu bokosi colloidal. Amakhala makamaka wa oligosaccharides ndi polysaccharides. Makoma khungu la maselo masamba akhoza lignificated. Pankhaniyi, malo pakati pa matabwa ali wodzazidwa ndi mapadi zina chakudya - lignin. Iwo timapitiriza akuthandiza ntchito ya selo nembanemba. Nthawi zambiri, makamaka osatha zomera ligneous, wosanjikiza akunja ongokhala mapadi TACHIMATA mafuta monga mankhwala - suberin. Iwo kumathandiza ingress madzi mu minofu chomera, kotero maselo zakuya mofulumira kufa ndi ataphimbidwa ndi wosanjikiza Nkhata Bay.

Mwachidule, ife tikuona kuti mu khoma chomera selo kumagwirizana chakudya mafuta. udindo wawo phototrophs thupi saganizira kuyambira maofesi glycolipid kupereka ntchito zothangatira ndi zoteteza. Tidzaphunzira zosiyanasiyana chakudya, zenizeni kwa Monera ufumu wa zamoyo. Izi zikuphatikizapo prokaryotes, monga mabakiteriya. selo awo khoma lili zimam'patsa - murein. Malinga ndi kapangidwe pamwamba pa zida za lagawidwa mabakiteriya galamu HIV ndi galamu-negative.

Kapangidwe ka gulu lachiwiri ndi zovuta zambiri. mabakiteriya awa ndi zigawo ziwiri: pulasitiki ndi okhwima. Woyamba lili mucopolysaccharides, mwachitsanzo murein. mamolekyulu yake mawonekedwe a nyumba yaikulu network n'kupanga kapisozi padziko selo bakiteriya. Wosanjikiza chachiwiri tichipeza peptidoglycan - polysaccharides pawiri ndi mapuloteni.

selo khoma lipopolysaccharides kulola mabakiteriya kutsatira mwamphamvu magawo osiyanasiyana, monga dzino enamel kapena Kakhungu eukaryotic selo. Komanso, glycolipids kulimbikitsa guluu wolimba maselo bakiteriya kwa wina ndi mzake. Choncho popangidwa ndi, mwachitsanzo, streptococci unyolo limodzi staphylococci Komanso mitundu ina ya prokaryotes ndi zina mucosa - peplos. Lili mu kapangidwe kake ndi polysaccharides ndi mosavuta anawonongedwa ndi cheza zovuta kapena kukhudzana ndi mankhwala ena monga mankhwala.