Zolimba: katundu, kapangidwe, kachulukidwe ndi zitsanzo

Olimba kuitana ngati zinthu zomwe angathe kupanga thupi ndi kukhala ndi mphamvu ndi. Zakumwa ndi mipweya, iwo kusiyana ndi mawonekedwe awo. zolimba The nawobe mawonekedwe a thupi chifukwa chakuti particles awo sangathe kusuntha momasuka. Iwo amasiyana kachulukidwe awo, ductility, madutsidwe magetsi ndi mtundu. Iwo ndi katundu wina. Mwachitsanzo, ambiri a zinthu izi anasungunuka pa Kutentha, kupeza madzi boma akaphatikiza. Ena mwa iwo pamene usavutike yomweyo gasified (sublimed). Koma palinso anthu kuti kuphwanya ku zinthu zina.

Mitundu ya zolimba

zolimba onse m'magulu awiri.

1. Amorphous, imene particles munthu imakonzedwa mosintha. M'mawu ena, iwo alibe bwino (yeniyeni) kapangidwe. zolimba zikhoza kusungunuka mu ena akuchipatala kutentha imeneyi. Ambiri a zikuphatikizapo galasi ndi utomoni.
2. Crystal, womwe ndi lophatikizana ndi ubwamunalo linagawanika mu mitundu 4: atomiki, maselo, amaayoni, zachitsulo. particles The zili okha chitsanzo yeniyeni, ndicho mu latisi krustalo. Masamu ake mu zinthu osiyana siyana kwambiri.

zolimba Tinthu akanagonjetsa amorphous chiwerengero chawo.

Mitundu ya zolimba crystalline

Pafupifupi zinthu zonse olimba ndi dongosolo crystalline. Iwo amasiyana dongosolo lawo. Mu crystalline ake latisi mfundo muli particles osiyanasiyana ndi mankhwala. Mogwirizana ndi iwo, ndipo iwo ali ndi maina awo. Mtundu uliwonse ali katundu yeniyeni yolimbana:

• The atomiki galasi latisi particles olimba zogwirizana ndi covalent muzikondana. Iwo kusiyana ndi mphamvu yake. Chifukwa ichi, zinthu zina mkulu limatsogolera mfundo ndi kuwira. mtundu Izi zikuphatikizapo khwatsi ndi diamondi.
• Mu latisi galasi la mgwirizano maselo pakati pa particles amakhala ndi kufooka kwake. Zinthu za mtundu yodziwika ndi chomasuka limatsogolera ndi kuwira. Iwo yodziwika ndi osakhalitsa, chifukwa omwe fungo ena. zolimba Awa ndi ayezi, shuga. Zoyenda wa mamolekyulu mu zolimba wa mtundu uwu yodziwika ndi ntchito yawo.
• The amaayoni galasi latisi mu mfundo za Njira particles ziwalo mlandu ndithu ndi moyipa. Ikuchitikira ndi kukopa electrostatic. Mtundu latisi alipo alkalis, salt, oxides zofunika. zinthu zambiri wa mtundu uwu ndi mosavuta sungunuka m'madzi. Chifukwa ndithu mgwirizano wamphamvu pakati pa ayoni ali refractory. Pafupifupi onse a iwo odorless, popeza yodziwika ndi sanali osakhalitsa. Zinthu ndi amaayoni latisi sangathe kuchita magetsi, monga zikuchokera awo ma elekitironi ufulu. Chitsanzo chabwino cha ion olimba - mchere. Chotero galasi latisi akuupereka Chimaona. Ichi ndi chifukwa chakuti aliyense wa kosangalatsa ake zingachititse ion mphamvu chonyansa.
• Kophimba zachitsulo galasi yekha mankhwala ayoni alipo mu mfundo ndi, ndithu mlandu. Pakati pawo pali ufulu ma elekitironi kudzera wakupambana kwambiri matenthedwe ndi magetsi mphamvu. N'chifukwa chake zitsulo aliyense mbali zosiyanasiyana monga madutsidwe.

Zikhulupiriro General olimba

Zolimba ndi zinthu - ndi pafupifupi chinthu chomwecho. mawu awa amatchedwa mmodzi wa limati 4 loitanirana. Zolimba nawo mawonekedwe khola ndi khalidwe la chisonyezo matenthedwe maatomu. Yotsirizira kupanga oscillations waung'ono pafupi ndi udindo wa mgwirizano. Nthambi ya sayansi polimbana ndi kuphunzira kapangidwe dongosolo mkati, amatchedwa sayansi olimba boma. Pali zinthu zina zofunika kwa kudziwa nawo zinthu zina. Kusintha mawonekedwe ndi zinthu kunja ndi filimu yotchedwa zimango za matupi deformable.

Chifukwa zimatha osiyanasiyana zolimba, iwo akhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito zipangizo zosiyanasiyana luso analenga munthu. Nthawi zambiri chifukwa cha ntchito zawo zinali katundu monga kuuma, voliyumu, misa, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness. sayansi masiku ano ntchito ndi makhalidwe ena a zolimba zomwe angathe kuonedwa yekha zasayansi.

galasi Kodi

Timibulu - thupi olimba anaikidwa ena particles dongosolo. Aliyense mankhwala ali dongosolo yake. maatomu ake kupanga atatu dimensionally nthawi stacking otchedwa latisi. zinthu olimba ndi osiyana dongosolo chosokonekera. boma olimba crystalline imatengedwa khola, chifukwa ali ndi osachepera kuchuluka kwa mphamvu zogonjetsera mavutowo.

Ambiri zipangizo olimba (achilengedwe) Amakhala ndi ambiri mosintha zochokera mbewu munthu (crystallites). Zinthu zimenezi zimatchedwa polycrystalline. Zikuphatikizapo kasakaniza wazitsulo luso ndi zitsulo, komanso ambiri miyala. Monocrystalline otchedwa zachilengedwe kapena kupanga timibulu umodzi.

Mu kwambiri ngati matupi olimba anapanga ku chikhalidwe cha gawo madzi, anagonjera kusungunula kapena njira. Nthawi zina, iwo zichokera kwa boma gaseous. Zimenezi amatchedwa crystallization. Zikomo chikulepheretsa sayansi ndi luso ndondomeko kulima (kaphatikizidwe) wa zinthu zosiyana-siyana cokonzedwa lonse mafakitale. Kwambiri ndi timibulu ali ndi maonekhedwe achilengedwe a polyhedron zonse. makulidwe awo zimasiyanasiyana. Mwachitsanzo, zachilengedwe khwatsi (thanthwe galasi) amatha kulemera kwa mazana a makilogalamu, ndi diamondi - mpaka magalamu angapo.

Mu zolimba amorphous, maatomu ali oscillation zonse padziko mfundo mosintha ili. Iwo kusunga ena kuti yochepa osiyanasiyana, koma palibe losatha. Ichi ndi chifukwa chakuti mamolekyulu awo anakonza pa mtunda kuti angayerekezedwe ndi kukula. Ambiri mwa chitsanzo chathu cha ichi ndi olimba kunyezimira chikhalidwe. zipangizo Amorphous nthawi zambiri ankamuona ngati madzi ndi kukhuthala wamphamvu zazikulu. Nthawi ya crystallization ndi zina zazikulu kwambiri moti sitingachisonyeze.

Kuti katundu pamwamba pa zinthu izi kuwapanga iwo wapadera. zolimba Amorphous amaonedwa osakhazikika chifukwa pa nthawi ukhoza kupita mu boma crystalline.

Mamolekyulu, maatomu, limene limapangidwa olimba odzaza ndi osalimba mkulu. Iwo amachita kukhala malo ake awo pankhani particles zina ndi ikuchitikira pamodzi ndi anzake intermolecular. Mtunda pakati mamolekyulu wa olimba madera osiyana amatchedwa galasi latisi chizindikiro. Kapangidwe ka mankhwala ndi chosokonekera ake kumasulila ndi kuchuluka kwa katundu monga elekitironi gulu, pogawanikana pamawere ndi Optics. Atadziŵa olimba mphamvu mokwanira lalikulu, makhalidwe amenewa zingakhale zambiri kapena zochepa linaphwanya. Pamene olimba amenable yotsalira mapindikidwe.

Maatomu a matupi olimba oscillate, ndilo chifukwa cholowa mphamvu matenthedwe. Popeza kuti iwo ndi negligible, iwo akhoza anati m'mikhalidwe zasayansi. Kapangidwe maselo a zolimba kwakukulukulu bwanji katundu wake.

Kuphunzira zolimba

Katundu katundu wa zinthuzi, khalidwe ndi tinthu awo zoyenda anaphunzira Ndime zosiyanasiyana za sayansi boma olimba.

Phunziro ntchito: wailesi kafukufuku wazamawalidwe, kusanthula structural ntchito X-ray ndi njira zina. Choncho kuphunzira makina, thupi ndi matenthedwe zimatha zolimba. Kuuma, nkhawa kukana, kwamakokedwe mphamvu, gawo kusintha Maphunziro Zida. Kwakukulukulu overlaps ndi sayansi ya zolimba. Pali wina sayansi yamakono zofunika. Kuphunzira analipo synthesizing zinthu zatsopano unachitikira umagwirira boma olimba.

Features zolimba

Khalidwe zoyenda kunja elekitironi olimba maatomu Mzimuyo ambiri a katundu, mwachitsanzo, electrically. Pali 5 makalasi a matupi amenewa. Iwo anapereka malingana ndi mtundu wa maatomu:

• Amaayoni, khalidwe zikuluzikulu zomwe ndi mphamvu ya kukopa electrostatic. paradaiso: kusinkhasinkha ndi mayamwidwe kuwala mu dera infuraredi. Pa kutentha otsika, mgwirizano amaayoni amakhala ndi madutsidwe otsika magetsi. Chitsanzo cha amenewa ali ndi sodium mchere wa acid amathiridwa (NaCl).
• Covalent ikuchitika likuvutika ndi awiri elekitironi m'dziko la atomu onse. ulalo amenewa lagawidwa: umodzi (osakwatira), awiri ndi patatu. maina amenewa akusonyeza pamaso pa elekitironi awiriawiri (1, 2, 3). Kawiri ndi patatu nsinga amatchedwa multiples. Pali kugawanikana wina wa m'gululo. Choncho, malingana ndi elekitironi kachulukidwe kufalitsa akutali kumalo ozizira ndi nonpolar muzikondana. Woyamba aumbike mwa maatomu osiyana, ndipo chachiwiri - ofanana. Chotero boma olimba a nkhani, zitsanzo zomwe zili - diamondi (C) ndi pakachitsulo (Si), yodziwika ndi osalimba ake. timibulu ambiri olimba ali chabe covalent muzikondana.
• Zitsulo aumbike mwa kaphatikizidwe wa valence ma elekitironi maatomu. Chifukwa, pali okwana elekitironi mtambo umene osamukira mchikakamizo cha voteji magetsi. Zitsulo chomangira aumbike pamene kulumikiza ma atomu yaitali. Akhoza kupereka ma elekitironi. zitsulo zambiri, mankhwala zovuta kwa nsinga yake imeneyi aumbike boma olimba a kanthu. Zitsanzo: sodium, barium, zotayidwa, mkuwa, golide. mankhwala Non-zachitsulo izi: AlCr _2, Ca ₂ Cu, Cu ₅ Zn _8. Zinthu ndi kulumikiza zitsulo (zitsulo) ali osiyanasiyana mu thupi katundu. Iwo akhoza kukhala madzi (Hg), zofewa (Na, K) ndi wovuta (W, Chidziwitso).
• Maselo akuwuka mu timibulu kuti anapanga mamolekyulu osiyana nkhani. Iwo amakhala ndi mipata pakati mamolekyulu ndi ziro elekitironi osalimba. Force yolumikiza maatomu mu timibulu awa ndithu. Pa mamolekyulu chomwecho iwo azifunana ofooka yekha intermolecular kukopa. N'chifukwa chake kulumikizana pakati pawo mosavuta anawonongedwa ndi kutentha. The kugwirizana kwa ma atomu kusokonekera ovuta kwambiri. Maselo chomangira lagawidwa lathu, kupezeka ndi kupatsidwa ulemu. Chitsanzo cha ngati chinthu cholimba ndi dziko.
• Hayidirojeni, amene amapezeka pakati pa maatomu ndithu magetsi kapena mamolekyulu zake ndi moyipa magetsi zing'onozing'ono tinthu wa molekyulu kapena zina. Mugone awa akhoza zimachitika ayezi.

katundu zolimba

Kodi timadziwa lero? Asayansi akhala akuphunzira katundu zinthu boma olimba. Atadziŵa kutentha ndi kusintha. Tinganene kuti madzimadzi thupi amatchedwa kusungunuka. Wasinthika olimba kuti boma gaseous amatchedwa sublimation. Ndi kucheperachepera kutentha amapezeka Olimba crystallization. Ena zinthu mchikakamizo cha kuzizira kunditumiza ku gawo amorphous. Zimenezi amatchedwa vitrification asayansi.

Mu kusintha gawo amasintha kapangidwe mkati mwa zolimba. The inalamula apamwamba izo amapeza kutentha ndi adatchithisira. Pa kuthamanga mumlengalenga ndi kutentha T> 0 K chinthu chilichonse alipo mu chikhalidwe, alimbitse. Only helium, ndi crystallization wa chimene chili chofunika vuto la 24 ATM, ndi zosiyana ndi lamulo limeneli.

boma olimba aipatsa katundu osiyana thupi. Iwo akufotokoza makhalidwe enieni matupi mchikakamizo cha minda ena ndi magulu. katundu amenewa anawagawa m'magulu. 3 kuonetsetsa kukhudzana njira lolingana kwa mitundu itatu mphamvu (mawotchi, ikukhudzana mu atomu). Choncho alipo magulu atatu a thupi katundu wa zolimba:

• Mawotchi katundu zokhudzana ndi maganizo ndi mapindikidwe wa matupi. Malinga akwaniritsa zimenezi, zolimba ndi anawagawa zotanuka, rheological, mphamvu ndi luso. zina ndi thupi akuzisunga kake, koma zikhoza kusintha ndi mphamvu kunja. Pankhaniyi akhale wa mapindikidwe pulasitiki (view koyamba sanabwerere), zotanuka (Umabwerera kwa mawonekedwe original) kapena kuwononga (pamene pakhomo ena limawola n'kusanduka / yopuma). Unikani zimenezi kufotokoza moduli zotanuka. Olimba osati chimatsutsana psinjika motsatizana, komanso kumasintha, kupotoza ndi kupinda. okhwima thupi kulimbana ndi kuitana kwa chuma chake anawonongedwa.
• Matenthedwe akuwonetseredwa mchikakamizo cha minda matenthedwe. Imodzi yofunika kwambiri katundu - mfundo kusungunuka, pa thupi ndi otembenuka ku mkhalidwe madzi. Iwo anati mu zolimba crystalline. matupi Amorphous adzalandira zobisika kutentha maphatikizidwe, monga kusintha awo kuti boma madzi pamene kutentha liukitsidwa pang'onopang'ono. Pa kufika zina kutentha thupi amorphous wotaya elasticity ake ndipo plasticity. boma Izi zikutanthauza kukwaniritsa galasi kusintha awo kutentha. Pamene Kutentha amapezeka okhwima thupi mapindikidwe. Komanso, nthawi zambiri lakamba zambiri. Quantitatively, chikhalidwe ichi amakhala ndi chinthu ena. Thupi kutentha amakhudza katundu makina monga flowability, plasticity, kulimba ndi mphamvu.
• Mu atomu kugwirizana ndi kukhudzana microparticles olimba utuluke ndi mafunde mu atomu a chinthu chimodzimodzi mkulu. Zikuphatikizapo kuletsedwa ndi katundu radiative.

kapangidwe gulu

zolimba anali wachinsinsi ndi otchedwa kapangidwe gulu. Choncho, mwa iwo amadziŵika:

• Akuwauza, yodziwika ndi kuti madutsidwe ndi valence magulu alipo. Chotero ma elekitironi angachititse pakati pawo, ndi kupatsa mphamvu zazing'ono. Pakuti ochititsa ndi zitsulo onse. Pamene magetsi aumbike otere angathe kusiyana thupi (chifukwa kayendedwe ufulu wa ma elekitironi pakati pa mfundo ndi otsika ndi kuthekera mkulu).
• Dielectrics, ziti musati alipo. The imeneyi pakati pa iwo ndi wamkulu kuposa 4 EV. Kuchititsa ma elekitironi ku valence kuti amafuna lalikulu mphamvu conduction gulu. Zikomo katundu izi dielectrics pafupifupi sanali conductive.
• Semiconductors, yodziwika ndi pakalibe conduction ndi valence magulu. The imeneyi pakati pa iwo ndi wocheperako kusiyana 4 EV. Pakuti kulanda ma elekitironi ku valence kwa conduction gulu amafuna zochepa mphamvu kuposa dielectrics. Koyera (unalloyed ndi eigenfunctions) semiconductors bwino panopa wadutsa.

Maselo zoyenda pa zolimba ndi chifukwa katundu wawo mu atomu.

katundu wina

Zolimba zidzasankhidwa ndi katundu wawo maginito. Pali magulu atatu:

• katundu Diamagnetic amene amadalira pang'ono pa kutentha kapena boma la loitanirana.
• Paramagnetic, chifukwa cha lathu la ma elekitironi ndi conduction ndi mphindi maginito ya ma atomu. Malinga Curie chiwopsezo awo amachepetsa monga kutentha. Choncho, pa 300 K ndi 10 ^-5.
• A thupi maginito ndi dongosolo analamula ndi kuti losatha maatomu. Mu mfundo ya latisi ndi nthawi anakonza particles ndi mphindi maginito. Izi zolimba ndi zinthu kambirimbiri muzochitika zosiyana za ntchito anthu.

Thunthu chovuta mu chikhalidwe

Kodi n'chiyani? zolimba kachulukidwe kwakukulukulu kudziwa kuuma awo. M'zaka zaposachedwapa, asayansi atulukira zipangizo zingapo zimene zimati "kwambiri cholimba thupi." Ambiri olimba - izo fullerite (mamolekyulu galasi ndi fullerene), umene uli pafupi nthawi 1.5 kwambiri kuposa diamondi. Mwatsoka, izo panopa zizipezeka zedi ochepa.

Pakali pano, chinthu chovuta kwambiri, umene pambuyo pake akhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito mu makampani - lonsdalite (hexagonal diamondi). Iye ndi 58% kwambiri kuposa diamondi. Lonsdalite - allotropic kusinthidwa mpweya. Krustalo ake latisi ndi zofanana kwambiri ndi mwala. Lonsdaleite selo lili 4 maatomu, koma daimondi - 8. A timibulu amagwiritsidwa ntchito lero daimondi chovuta.